Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Cuatro Ciénegas

The 18th century is known as the Age of Enlightenment, a triumph of light against the darkness of the Middle Ages. This century is a great period in which there will be great contributions to freedom and the first liberal revolutions.

Changes in Agriculture

• Norfolk System: A system of crop rotation that increased land productivity compared to the fallow system.
• Fallow: Agricultural technique of leaving the land to rest for a while with the aim of improving its conditions for the next crop.
• Wetlands were drained in order to increase arable land.
• The Romans abandoned the traditional wooden plow and replaced it with the iron one. Also, they used oxen, horses, and donkeys.
• The fallow system was replaced by the Norfolk system.
• Communal land transitioned

Desert Encroachment and Desertification

Human activities significantly accelerate the appearance of desert conditions.

Main Factors Contributing to Desertification:

• Overgrazing: Excessive grazing by livestock removes vegetation cover, leading to soil erosion.
• Chemical Degradation: Pollution from industrial and agricultural chemicals degrades soil quality.
• Agricultural Activities: Unsustainable farming practices, such as monoculture and excessive tillage, deplete soil nutrients.
• Logging and Forest Fires: Deforestation removes trees that anchor soil and regulate water cycles.
• Soil Compaction: Heavy machinery and livestock traffic compact the soil, reducing its ability to absorb water.
• Overexploitation of Water: Excessive extraction of groundwater lowers

Mendizábal's Confiscation in Spain

Background: The Madoz Seizure

The Madoz seizure involved the sale of various properties, particularly municipal lands, to members of the Church. In Asturias, long-term leased lands called foros existed, often owned by the Church, with tenants paying rent across generations. A similar system was present in Galicia. The Madoz seizure declared both personal and common lands for sale, including those leased by municipalities to fund services. This practice stemmed from lands granted to municipalities by kings during the Reconquista. Major military orders were located in Andalusia, Extremadura, Valencia, and Murcia. Payment for seized lands involved a 10% upfront payment and the remainder over fourteen years,... Continue reading "Mendizábal's Confiscation: Church and State in 19th-Century Spain" »

Liberal Land Reform in Spain

The Liberal Agrarian Reform was a set of reforms aimed at dissolving the former regime in the country, as well as introducing models of capitalist property and production. During this process, the manorial system was abolished, property was disentailed (desamortización), and lands belonging mostly to the Church and councils were affected. These reforms consolidated private ownership of land, which was transformed into a commodity that could be bought and sold.

Agricultural Problems in Spain

The Liberal Land Reform did not grant property ownership to farmers, which is why most were left as landless laborers and migrated to cities. The continuance of cheap labor did not stimulate increased mechanization and productivity.... Continue reading "Spanish Economic Transformation 19th Century" »

Key Demographic Concepts and Trends

Baby Boom

A baby boom refers to an accelerated increase in population growth within a short period. This term can sometimes be associated with subsequent economic challenges.

Age Groups and Their Economic Roles

• 0 to 14 years: This group comprises babies, children, and adolescents up to 14 years old. They are generally considered the school population and are not part of the paid workforce.
• 15 to 64 years: This age bracket is often referred to as the economically active population.
• 65 years and over: This group includes older adults or the elderly, who are largely retired from the workforce.

Global Population Aging

The aging of the world's population is a consequence of the demographic transition. A decline in mortality... Continue reading "Demographic Trends: Birth Rates, Mortality, and Population Growth" »

The Phenomenon of Colonization

Various native peoples of the Eastern Mediterranean came to the Balearic Islands, the East Coast, and Andalusia in the Iberian Peninsula. Their distinctive feature was the commercial activity they had developed in the Mediterranean area. Beyond settling in Hispanic lands, they are called settlers. The main reason for their arrival was economic: copper, tin, gold, and silver. Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians came to Hispanic lands.

Early Settlers

The Morro de Mezquitilla deposit in Malaga dates from the 9th century BC. The founding of Gades, future Cadiz, is dated between 800 and 775 BC. New foundations are usually located on the Mediterranean coast of Andalusia, such as Sexi. They were interested in the mines... Continue reading "Ancient Mediterranean Colonization of the Iberian Peninsula" »

Latin America: A Geographic Overview

Location and Size

Latin America encompasses three of the four natural units of the Americas, representing 50% of the continent. It covers an area of 42,083,206 km², spanning latitudes from 83°N to 56°S and longitudes from 173°W to 35°W.

Key Landforms

• Isthmus: A narrow strip of land connecting two larger land areas across the sea.
• Sierra: Part of a mountain range, often composed of a main range and lower foothills.
• Plain: A relatively flat, low-lying area, typically below 200m in altitude (e.g., Orinoco and Amazon basins).
• Shield: Ancient, stable rock formations (e.g., Guiana and Brazilian Shields).
• Basin: A depression on the Earth's surface, a valley surrounded by higher ground.
• Altiplano: A high intermountain

Industrial Revolution Definition

The Industrial Revolution was not just a technological change with the appearance of machines, but also an economic shift towards economic liberalism and a social change with the emergence of the proletariat (workers). It originated in England and expanded to other countries.

Factors

Demographic

• Increased population due to decreased mortality (better hygiene and nutrition).

Agricultural Revolution

• New cultivation methods and productive systems.
• New land ownership system where common lands were purchased by individuals.

Economic

• Economic liberalism influenced British politicians to facilitate trade and development.

Intellectual (Technical)

• Various technical inventions were driven by existing needs, with each invention leading