Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Liberal Land Reform in 19th Century Spain

The Liberal Land Reform was a process aimed at dissolving traditional agricultural production relations (the Old Scheme). This reform primarily took place between 1835 and 1837, under the inspiration of Mendizábal, when key rules were adopted for the abolition of the manorial system. These rules can be grouped into three main areas:

• Dissolution of the manorial system
• Decoupling of land
• Seizure of church and common lands (desamortización)

Spain's 19th Century Demographic Revolution

The Demographic Revolution refers to a sudden and significant increase in births. In Spain, during the nineteenth century, the population experienced an increase of over 76%. The causes included the disappearance of certain epidemics,... Continue reading "Historical Shifts: Spain's 19th Century Development" »

European Transport Systems

Road transport boasts a dense network of highways. Railways have lost their dominance, though their role in the transport of goods and passengers remains important. Europe also possesses important merchant naval fleets. Air transport primarily serves passengers.

European Trade Dynamics

Internal trade is conducted with priority among the countries that are part of the EU. Foreign trade is also very important.

EU Transport & Trade Policy

Policy promotes trans-European networks to improve business infrastructures. This policy is based on the principle that member countries constitute a single market. Internal policy is based on the customs union, or the elimination of customs duties. External policy includes a common... Continue reading "Europe & Spain: Transport, Trade, Tourism Dynamics" »

Europe in the Fifteenth Century

Population and Economic Growth

The disappearance of the great epidemics of the previous century (such as the Black Death) and the recovery of crop fields allowed for a significant increase in population.

Increased demand drove manufacturing productivity, which grew gradually. Farm output also expanded.

Sea routes in the Mediterranean Sea, the Baltic, and the North Sea revitalized trade. The expansion of commerce resulted in the increase of craft production and the growth of cities that served as commercial centers and major ports.

The Rise of the Bourgeoisie

The growth of trade and manufacturing activities generated great profits for the bourgeoisie.

The economic power of the bourgeoisie was not based on land ownership,... Continue reading "The Formation of Modern Spain: Economy and Monarchy in the 15th Century" »

The 20th Century and the Crisis of Realism

In the 20th century, a crisis of realism emerged, prompting a search for solutions that manifested differently across cultures. In Spain, this movement was known as Modernism.

Modernism was characterized by a departure from reason, which had previously underpinned culture. This shift was rooted in a loss of faith in reason, leading to what is termed irrationalism. This loss of faith extended to the belief in progress.

Spanish Modernism was further influenced by the social crisis of 1898, which resulted in colonial losses, political paralysis, and a cultural crisis, leaving Spain unable to address new challenges. Spanish Modernists sought to overcome this crisis, assuming a new role as intellectuals.

These... Continue reading "Modernism and the Crisis of 1898 in Spain: A Cultural Shift" »

The Nueva Planta Decrees

The end of the War of the Spanish Succession meant the triumph of centralizing and standardizing absolutism. A new organization of the monarchy was established in the kingdoms defeated in the war. It was considered that the best way to govern was with the same laws and institutions, all dependent on the Crown. This new form of government came through the Nueva Planta Decrees, abolishing the privileges of Aragon and Valencia, as a result of the military occupation after the Battle of Almansa. The second decree was promulgated in 1715 for Mallorca, and for Catalonia in 1716. Only the Basque Country and Navarre maintained their historic privileges as a reward for their loyalty to Philip V.

The organization of the territories... Continue reading "Nueva Planta Decrees and Bourbon Reforms in Spain" »

Understanding the Enlightenment Era

The Enlightenment takes place in the era of liberal revolutions encouraged by the bourgeoisie, from the English Revolution of 1688, which had created a Parliament, to the French Republic of 1789.

Defining the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment is a historical period characterized by significant changes in the mentality and social organization of European countries during the eighteenth century.

Enlightenment Across Europe

The English Enlightenment

England is considered the country that originated the Enlightenment. The English Enlightenment had an empirical basis (Locke, Hume, etc.) and was oriented towards the cultivation of the natural sciences, such as physics developed by Newton.

The French Enlightenment

In France,... Continue reading "The Enlightenment: History, Philosophy, and Key Ideas" »

Medieval Kingdoms: The Rise of Royal Power

Medieval kingdoms were characterized by a marked polycentrism, where the heritage and character of power depended mainly on land ownership. In the kingdoms from the 11th century, estate representation bodies began to proliferate: Courts, Parliaments, Estates-General, where the King met with the bourgeoisie, the higher clergy, and nobility.

The King's Tax Battle with the Towns

Distinct battles were fought here; the most characteristic is the king's tax battle with the towns. The king needed money to fund his campaigns and shore up his authority among the feudal lords, and only the cities were able to provide it (in exchange for something). This brought up the system of covenants between the king and cities:... Continue reading "Medieval Kingdoms: Rise of Royal Power & Decline of Feudalism" »

Society and Culture in Restoration Spain

The society of Restoration Spain was characterized as a dual society with two distinct groups:

• A vast agricultural interior with subsistence lifestyles and limited progress.
• A few industrialized areas where a modern society gradually emerged.

The connection between these two societies was weak, with many inland regions living in isolation. Poverty was widespread, hindering consumption, saving, industrial development, and social modernization.

The power block was formed by a bourgeois oligarchy, including Basque steel magnates, Catalan textile entrepreneurs, and Castilian cereal producers.

Society in Rural Areas

During the Restoration period, rural social groups included:

• Agrarian oligarchy, predominant in the

Urbanization and Societal Structures

Defining Key Terms

Neighborhood: Refers to the increase in the population living in urban areas within a country or region.

Latin America: This term is used because the countries grouped within it share a common root in their source languages, primarily Latin-based Spanish and Portuguese.

Anglo America: This term is used because these lands were primarily occupied by English settlers of Germanic origin.

National Emergency Committee

Objectives of the National Emergency Committee

• Public Works
• National Police
• Health
• Finance

Functions of the National Emergency Committee

• Prevent and counter the effects of natural disasters or any other source.
• Create constant and local emergency departments.
• Prepare annual and special budgets.

Primary Sector: Agriculture and Food Production

Primary Sector: Obtaining purchase-related activities and food production.

Agricultural activities are limited by physical factors:

• Weather: Tampa. Soft precipitation, moderate.
• Relief: Plan.
• Soil: Depending on your fertility.
• Altitude: Causes a decrease in temperature, unfavorable for crops.
• Latitude: Near the equator, there is more regular sunlight.

Agriculture is also practiced in Africa and North America, where there is less sunlight.

Agricultural Landscapes

Agricultural Landscapes: The landscape is changed to extract agricultural products.

Field Types

• Open fields: No barriers, long and regular.
• Closed fields: Barriers, many extensions, irregular shapes.

Cropping Systems

• Irrigated: Large single-crop.
• Polyculture: