Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Rise of Nazi Regime

The consolidation of Nazis in power began with the Reichstag fire on February 27, 1933. They accused communists and persecuted them, making all other political parties illegal. Hitler eliminated potential rivals in the Night of Long Knives in June 1934, assassinating SA members. After Hindenburg's death, Hitler became president and held all top positions, starting his dictatorship. He introduced anti-Semitic policies, banning Jews from professions in 1933, marriages in 1935, and leading to the Night of Broken Glass in 1938.

Nazi Economy

The Nazis established the 'Beauty of Work' propaganda initiative, abolished trade unions, and banned strikes. They attempted autarchy but focused on public works, military rearmament, and heavy... Continue reading "Rise of Nazi Regime and USSR Economic Policies" »

UNIT 2

Pollution: contamination of the soil, water or air / the process of polluting the air, water… especially by means of poisonous chemicals. 
Environment: the natural world around us. Medioambiente
(to be) green: to be eco-friendly / concerned with protecting the natural world.
Waste: material which has been used and is no longer wanted / used too much.
Reuse: use again. Reutilizar
Recycle: process things that have already been used so they can be used again.
Rubbish  bin: a container for unwanted things or waste material, such as used paper, empty bins and bottles… Papelera
Bottle bank: a container for used glass that you want to recycle. Contenedor de Botellas
Throw away: get rid of / discard something that you don’t want by putting it... Continue reading "Pollution and Environmental Issues: A Glossary of Terms" »

Population Dynamics

Natural Population Change

Natural population change refers to increases and decreases in population produced by biological factors.

Migration

Migration involves a change of residence and job. It can be internal or external.

Population Structure

Population structure is the classification of population based on different criteria.

Population Density

Population density is the relation between the population and the size of the area it occupies.

Natality

Natality is the number of births that take place in a population over a year.

Mortality

Mortality is the number of deaths that take place in a population over a year.

Natural Increase

Natural increase is the number of births minus the number of deaths.

Emigration

Emigration is people leaving... Continue reading "Population Dynamics and Settlements: A Comprehensive Study" »

Sustainable Agriculture and Global Challenges

An alternative approach involves applying fertilizers precisely to specific areas of a field where demand is high, often combined with drip irrigation to deliver water directly to plant roots. While this method can be expensive, it is highly efficient in controlling and reducing the amount of water and fertilizers used in agricultural fields.

Why Malnutrition Persists Globally

• Poverty: Many cannot afford nutritious food.
• Food Shortages: Periods like "hungry seasons" before harvests force families to travel far for food.
• Climate Change: Leading to droughts and floods that disrupt food production.
• Food Waste: Significant amounts of edible food are lost or discarded.
• National Economies: Economic instability

Rethinking the Industrial Revolution (1750–1870): Misconceptions

The term "Industrial Revolution" (IR), spanning approximately 1750 to 1870, may be misleading for two primary reasons:

1. Evolutionary Change vs. Radical Rupture: The word "revolution" evokes an image of a radical rupture, while the IR was fundamentally a process of evolutionary and cumulative economic change. Moreover, for more than half a century, the English economy presented a dual aspect where new and old technologies coexisted.
2. Scope Beyond Industry: The term "industrial" seems to exclusively limit this process of change to the field of industry. In reality, these transformations affected all sectors of the economy (demography, agriculture, transport, science, etc.). These sectors

City Centers

The activities of a city's inhabitants influence the way a city is organized. Although these activities are often found all over the city, many of them are concentrated in the distinctive place known as the city center. The city center has its own character and is a reference point for its citizens and for visitors. The city centers of many cities, particularly European cities, have historic and emblematic buildings, as well as the headquarters of companies and public administration bodies (councils, ministries, etc.). City centers also host shopping areas and entertainment centers. North American city centers contain the CBD (Central Business District), which features a landscape of skyscrapers and tertiary sector activities. The... Continue reading "City Centers and Urban Hierarchy: A Comparative Analysis" »

Feudalism: The Foundation of Medieval Europe

Feudalism emerged as the dominant system of social, political, and economic organization in Medieval Europe.

Political System

The political landscape was shaped by the disintegration of the Roman Empire and the decline of public law following the invasions. Large landowners assumed functions previously reserved for the state, such as coinage, tax collection, justice, and defense. After the invasions, new kingdoms organized according to the feudal scheme, forming patrimonial monarchies where the king was considered primus inter pares (first among equals). Within each territory, powerful lords exercised strict control over public administration.

Social System

Feudal law, characterized by concepts of entrustment,... Continue reading "Early Medieval Society: Feudalism, Demography, and Economy" »

Natural Resource Mining & Exploitation

The exploitation of natural resources involves various technologies, costs, and often unprofitable markets.

Types of Mining Activity

• Surface Mining: Includes mines and quarries.
• Underground Mining: Extraction from beneath the Earth's surface.
• Underwater Mining: Utilizes dredgers for resource recovery.
• Drilling Wells: For liquid and gaseous resources.

Modern Mining Challenges

Today's mining activities face significant problems, including environmental degradation, excessive resource extraction, and social conflicts.

Energy Sources: History & Classification

Evolution of Energy Use

The history of energy consumption has progressed through various stages:

• Coal: A foundational energy source.
• Electricity, Oil, and

The Late Middle Ages

Indicators of Late Medieval Expansion

Technical innovations led to:

• Increased labour productivity
• Increased soil yields
• Surpluses that sustained urban life
• Crop specialization

This period saw the expansion of citadels and the granting of municipal charters to newly created villas.

Political Evolution: From Feudalism to National States

The transition from feudal political fragmentation to national monarchies involved:

• Territorial and administrative unification
• Codification of laws and coinage
• Creation of a non-patrimonial public estate

The burgus (urban centers) launched an anti-feudal offensive, relying on urban society and the recovery of public law.

Economic Changes and Social Organization

• Rise of new social groups linked to commerce

Direct Economic Consequences

1. Decline of Europe in the International Economy

This involved significant leadership changes:

• Strong regression of European participation in world GDP, Information Technology (I.T.), and industrial weight, leading to the relative impoverishment of Europe and the enrichment of other areas.
• Collapse of European economy (transport, equipment, capital) compounded by hunger and the 1918 flu epidemic.
• Transition cost from war (demobilization) to peace economy, resulting in excess supply in steel and naval sectors.
• Rise of Japan (JP), the United States (US), and some European neutral countries, alongside new nations (Canada (CA), Australia (AU), and some Latin American countries), benefiting from the “war business cycle”