Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Farming Innovations

The old method of farming involved leaving one field fallow every third year. The Dutch, seeking to maximize land use, developed a system of crop rotation. This involved growing different crops (wheat, turnip, barley, clover) on the same field each year. Each crop utilized different chemicals and minerals from the soil. By the mid-eighteenth century, wealthy British farmers enthusiastically adopted crop rotation.

Traditionally, seeds were sown by hand, with much being lost to wind or birds. Jethro Tull invented a seed drill that dug a hole, trickled in the seed, and covered it with earth. Sowing seeds in rows also made weeding easier. Another innovation was the horse hoe, which allowed for weeding multiple rows at once. By... Continue reading "Agricultural Revolution: Innovations, Growth & Trade Impact" »

2.1: Impact in the Primary Sector

• Agriculture: Groundwater irrigation (depletes), chemical fertilizers (pollute), greenhouse farming (gets dirty).

2.2 Deforestation: Destruction of land and vegetation cover.

• Consequences: Soil erosion; gradual process of movement and transport of the upper layer of soil by different agents causing its deterioration in the long term.
• Loss of biodiversity; reduction in an area's biodiversity.

2.3 Overfishing: Depletes the stock of fish in a body of water by excessive fishing.

3. Atmospheric Pollution: Air pollution is the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, caused by human activity and natural processes.

• 3.1 Acid Rain: A form of precipitation with

Refugee Movements: Causes and Economic Impact

What is a humanitarian crisis?

Nowadays, there are many refugee movements caused by various humanitarian crises. A humanitarian crisis can be defined as a situation in which there is an exceptional and generalized threat to human life, health, or subsistence. These crises usually appear within the context of an existing lack of protection, where a series of pre-existing factors are exacerbated by a natural disaster or armed conflict and, as a consequence, the destructive effects are multiplied.

Types of emergencies

Humanitarian crises can be grouped into three categories:

• Natural disasters — geophysical, climatological, meteorological, or biological events.
• Man-made emergencies — armed conflicts,

Absolutism and the Decline of Feudalism in Europe

1. Absolutism and Parliament

• Absolutism: The king has all the power in society.
• Parliament: The king does not have all the power; the people have a say in government.

2. Economic Changes

2.1 Agriculture

• Agriculture became less productive.
• The land became less fertile due to frosts, heavy rain, and droughts.
• Demand for agricultural products decreased.

2.2 Craft Production

• Craft production continued to be regulated by associations called guilds.
• The domestic system allowed for cheaper products to be produced more efficiently.

2.3 Trade

• Spain, Portugal, Italy, England, and the United Provinces became important trading nations.

2.4 Taxes

• Ordinary people were taxed to pay for the military and luxuries of the court.

Ancient India: Geography and Early Settlements

In northern India, the Brahmaputra, Ganges, and Indus rivers carry rich silt from the mountains to the plains. India’s early settlers farmed and later built walled settlements in these fertile river valleys, marking the beginning of civilization in India.

In some parts of the Deccan Plateau in southern India, rich black soil is ideal for growing cotton.

The Eastern and Western Ghats are located near India’s coasts. The Western Ghats are notably higher and wetter than their eastern counterparts. Along India’s northern border lie the Himalayas, the highest mountains in the world. The Hindu Kush range, running through present-day Pakistan, provides crucial access to the Indian subcontinent via... Continue reading "Ancient India: Geography, Empires, and Cultural Milestones" »

Fertility

The number of live births per 1000 women aged between 15-49.

Mortality

The mortality in a particular place or situation is the number of people who die.

Demography

The study of population statistics.

Life Expectancy

The average period that a person is expected to live.

Density

A measure of the amount of information on a storage medium.

Migration

Seasonal movement of people from one region to another.

Population

All the inhabitants of a particular place.

One Child Policy

An official program initiated in the late 1970s and early '80s by the central government of China, the purpose of which was to limit the great majority of family units in the country to one child each. The rationale for implementing the policy was to reduce the growth rate of China'... Continue reading "Fertility, Mortality, Demography, and Population: Key Concepts Explained" »

The Spanish Housing Bubble (1997-2006)

The housing bubble occurred in Spain during the decade from 1997 to 2006. During this period, housing prices effectively doubled. Property prices grew significantly faster than the prices of other goods.

According to Gandoy, in comparison with the European Union, construction achieved significant importance in Spain. This housing expansion formed the basis of the economic growth model, driven by demographic growth resulting from immigration and the demand for secondary residences from both national investors and other Europeans. Housing demand rose thanks to easy credit availability stemming from lower interest rates. Prices were further accelerated by the supply of buildings driven by speculation, which... Continue reading "Spanish Housing Bubble: Causes and Consequences" »

The Importance of Sustainable Energy Production

Energy production is a fundamental process for most human activities on Earth. Its use in sectors such as industry, commerce, transport, telecommunications, and a wide range of agricultural and domestic services has compelled us to focus our attention on ensuring a continuous supply to meet our increasing demands. Nowadays, the main source of energy is fossil fuel. Coal, oil, and natural gas could be exhausted soon; therefore, scientists are seeking new alternative energies.

Renewable vs. Non-Renewable Energy

Basically, energy can be divided into renewable and non-renewable energy. Renewable energy is produced using natural resources that are constantly replaced and will never run out. There are... Continue reading "Renewable Energy Sources: Benefits and Challenges" »

Second Industrial Revolution (1870-1910)

Rapid Industrialization and Finance Capitalism

The period between 1870 and 1910 witnessed rapid industrialization fueled by the rise of the financial sector. This involved investment activities through banks and stock exchanges, creating capital without direct product manufacturing.

Innovations and Changes

Increased Production

• New Sources of Finance:
  • Joint-stock company: Individuals contribute capital, buy shares, and receive/lose profits proportionally.
  • Bank: Lent money to businesses with interest.
  • Stock exchange: Marketplace for buying and selling company shares.
• New Business Structures:
  • Cartels: Horizontal associations of companies in the same industry, collectively deciding production and prices.
  • Trusts: Vertical

Spain’s Population Changes

Spain’s population has changed in the past due to economic activities, use of the land and the history of the inhabitants. It is a country of contrasts where areas are highly populated as the service, industrial and coastal zones, or less populated like mountainous or arable areas.

Before 19th Century

It is difficult to know Spain's exact population before the first census, but we can estimate it thanks to the historical events that affected the society: the Black Death and poor harvests from the 14th century, the emigration waves to America in the 16th century or the smallpox epidemic from 1785.

Since 19th Century

Since the 19th century, the advances brought by the Industrial Revolution caused a continuous population... Continue reading "Population Changes in Spain: Historical Overview and Current Challenges" »