Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Industrial Revolution includes all the changes to goods production and consumption resulting from the incorporation of machines into industrial manufacturing.

• Occurred over a long period of time
• Slow and constant progress
• Affected other sectors
• Changed the economy and society

The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain around 1870 due to favourable economic and demographic factors.

• Agricultural Revolution
• Demographic Revolution
• Modernisation of transport
• Growth of financial means
• Availability of energy sources and raw materials

Agricultural Revolution

• Technical progress
  • Triennial (three-field) rotation was replaced by the

Mayoral Powers and Limitations

The veto power helps distinguish between cities with strong and weak mayors. Another distinction between strong and weak mayors is determined by their powers of administration. Weak mayors have limited appointing powers and even more limited removal powers. They have little control over separately elected boards and commissions or separately elected offices such as clerk, treasurer, tax collector, and attorney. A mayor’s ability to provide strong leadership in many cities is limited by fragmented authority, multiple elected officials, limited jurisdiction over important urban services, and civil service.

Metropolitan Area Classifications

The U.S. Office of Management and Budget divides the nation's metropolitan... Continue reading "Urban Dynamics: Mayoral Authority, Suburban Growth, and Governance" »

HENRY VIII (1491-1547)

England from 1509. 2nd Tudor monarch.

Henry VIII had 6 marriages, including Catherine of Aragon (annulled) and Anne Boleyn. As England was a Catholic country, the Pope, as head of the Church, would not allow divorce, as Catholic marriage is for life. Henry VIII made Church officials swear that he was the leader, allowing him to arrange his own divorce. This process, called the Reformation, was confirmed by the Act of Supremacy (1534), which declared Henry VIII the Supreme Head of the Church of England. He declared any monks who spoke against him traitors and had them executed, leading to the Dissolution of the Monasteries. During this time, Thomas More was beheaded for refusing to support Henry VIII.

ELIZABETH I (1533-

From the Middle Ages to the Early Modern Period

The term modern is used to describe innovative or novel concepts. The Early Modern Period should therefore be considered a period of significant changes with respect to the previous era. However, while the Early Modern Period began at the end of the Middle Ages (between the 15th and 18th centuries in Europe), there was also substantial continuity with the medieval period, particularly regarding social and economic structures.

Continuity: Feudal Economics and Society

The structure of society remained largely the same as it was during the Middle Ages. Social groups were rigidly divided based on inherited privileges.

The Three Estates of the Realm

The king was at the top of the social system. However,... Continue reading "Social Structure Continuity: Middle Ages to Early Modern Period" »

Old Regime: Europe's 18th-Century System

The Old Regime was the political, social, and economic system prevalent in Europe during the 18th century. This society was characterized by a rigid social hierarchy (estates), an agrarian economy, and absolute monarchical rule.

Nationalism: Ideology of National Identity

Nationalism is a political ideology advocating for the right of nations to self-determination and to form their own independent states. It asserts that people sharing a common language, religion, and history constitute a distinct nation.

Liberalism: Championing Individual Rights

Liberalism is a political ideology that champions individual rights and liberties, typically protected by a constitution, as a safeguard against the absolute power... Continue reading "Historical Definitions: Europe's Transformative Eras" »

Classification of Landscapes

Landscapes are categorized based on human intervention:

• Natural Landscape: Unorganized spaces not transformed by human activity.
• Transformed Landscape: Areas adapted by agriculture, non-industrialized societies, or the use of fire.
• Ordered Landscape: Spaces requiring technical skill to modify and manage.

Agricultural Systems

Crop Diversity

• Single-crop: Only one type of crop is grown.
• Multiple-crop: More than one type of crop is grown.

Water Usage

• With Irrigation: Special systems required due to climate conditions.
• Without Irrigation: Relies on natural rainfall.

Farming Techniques and Structures

Techniques

• Intensive: Maximizes production from smaller areas; requires a large workforce, high attention, and greenhouses.
• Extensive:

The Middle Ages

Feudalism

Medieval Society

• Kings and Queens
• Rulers
• Nobility
• Lords and Knights
• Controlled the land
• Clergy
• Church officials
• Peasants
• Majority of the population
• Worked the land and served the nobles

Feudalism

A political and social system based on the granting of land in exchange for loyalty, military assistance, and other services.

Feudalism

Developed as a result of frequent invasions in western Europe. Kings and nobles needed a way to protect their lands.

Feudalism

• Lords divided their lands into estates called fiefs.
• Fiefs (land) given to vassals.
• A person granted land in return for loyalty or military service.
• All nobles were vassals to the king.

Feudalism

• Knights: Mounted warriors who protected lord’s lands. Given land for their services.
• Chivalry:

Growth of the Economy and Bourgeoisie

Economy and population expanded along the 18th century.

Population Growth

European population increased from 100 million people to 200 million in the last half of the 18th century. The factors that contributed to this population growth were:

• the increase of agricultural production.
• fewer epidemics.
• rise of the birth rate.
• the decrease of the death rate.

The population growth had several consequences:

• increase of the agricultural production.
• more consumers to buy all kind of goods.
• economic expansion.

The Development of Agriculture and Manufacturing

(economic expansions). Factors to increase agricultural production were:

• new areas were cultivated (pastures and forests were cleared out).
• New crops such as potatoes and corn

Historical Comparisons: Early Colonies and Ancient Empires

Jamestown and Plymouth: Similarities and Differences

Both of these colonies eventually developed democratic tendencies. The colonists decided what to do and who held important positions (e.g., the House of Burgesses). They needed to maintain relationships with Native American tribes to survive, and both were established by Joint Stock Companies.

Key Distinctions Between Jamestown and Plymouth

• Founding Motivation: Jamestown (1607) was established for economic reasons (seeking wealth), while Plymouth was founded for religious reasons (seeking freedom).
• Settler Profile: The initial settlers in Jamestown included high-class individuals and soldiers who lacked agricultural knowledge, necessitating

Globalization: A Historical Perspective

The term "globalization," coined in 1961, is multifaceted and often interpreted differently. Generally, it refers to the increasing interconnectedness of people worldwide. However, some argue that it primarily revolves around economic interests.

When Did Globalization Begin?

Some scholars suggest that figures like Juan Sebastián Elcano, who circumnavigated the globe during the Age of Exploration, were early precursors to globalization.

The Three Waves of Contemporary Globalization

1850 - World War I: The Rise of Industrialization and Urbanization

This period, primarily driven by Europe and America, witnessed significant advancements in industrialization, technological innovation (e.g., the steam engine and... Continue reading "Understanding the Three Waves of Globalization: A Historical Overview" »