Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Analysis of the Map

The dark colors—green, orange, and red—represent the kingdoms of Castilla and León, the Crown of Aragón, and Portugal in 1150. Lighter tones of these same colors reflect the territories reconquered by these kingdoms by 1270. The Kingdom of Navarre (in yellow) remained blocked between Castilla and Aragón, which halted its expansion. The tributary Kingdom of Granada (in rose), a vassal of Castile, constituted the final Muslim redoubt. The symbol of crossed swords indicates Christian victories (in black) and Muslim victories (in red).

Historical Commentary

Following the Muslim invasion in 711, several pockets of resistance formed in the peninsular north. These did not take the offensive until the disintegration of the Caliphate... Continue reading "The Reconquista: Christian Expansion and Medieval Iberia" »

Imperialism in the 19th and 20th Centuries

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a number of developed countries took control of other regions and lands all over the world.

The Causes of Imperial Expansion

Imperial expansion was mainly a result of the rise of finance capitalism.

• For European countries, colonies were a symbol of international prestige; it was also important to control strategic locations.
• The growth of the population in Europe and the use of machinery in factories caused high levels of unemployment, and many people emigrated to the colonies to look for work.
• Scientific progress required geographic expeditions to unknown areas of the world, such as the African continent, or expeditions to discover new plants, animals, and

Cold War Power Struggles and the Third World

During the Cold War, the USSR (Communist) and the US (Capitalist) attempted to convince the Third World to become part of their respective blocs, each highlighting their own advantages. The USA wanted to demonstrate strength by controlling and exploiting Latin America. While the US promoted free trade, it was difficult to implement in Latin America because governments desired total control, resisted economic integration, and faced challenges with product pricing and difficult geography.

Geopolitical Triangulation and Strategic Shifts

The US intended to leverage the poor relationship between China and the USSR, known as Triangulation. This was complicated because Khrushchev criticized Stalin, the USSR... Continue reading "Cold War Dynamics: The Third World and Dependency Theory" »

Population, Society, and Daily Life in Spain (1940-1975)

Demographic and Urban Growth (1940-1975)

Between 1940 and 1975, Spain's population significantly increased from 26 million to 35.4 million.

Initially, after the Civil War, population growth was slow due to several factors:

• Exile
• Difficult economic situation
• Illnesses and malnutrition

From 1960 onwards, the economic situation improved, leading to an increased rhythm of demographic growth.

Migration Movements

Spain experienced significant internal and external migration during this period:

• Rural Exodus: Over 4 million people abandoned agrarian areas in inland Spain. They migrated to industrial or tourist regions such as the Basque Country, the Ebro Valley, Madrid, and the Mediterranean coast. This

Classification of Industrial Activities

Industrial activities can be classified into different types based on their origin and characteristics:

Base Industries

These industries make the first changes to raw materials (minerals and energy sources) to provide energy.

Capital Goods Industries

These industries make the second changes in order to prepare products.

Consumer Goods Industries

These industries manufacture products that are to be sold directly to the consumer.

Factors for Industry Location

Traditional Factors

• Proximity to raw materials and energy sources
• Proximity to market centers and consumption
• Proximity to ports and transport routes
• Abundance of low-skilled labor

Current Factors

• Accessibility to raw materials and energy sources
• Abundance of cheap

Farming Innovations

The old method of farming involved leaving one field fallow every third year. The Dutch, seeking to maximize land use, developed a system of crop rotation. This involved growing different crops (wheat, turnip, barley, clover) on the same field each year. Each crop utilized different chemicals and minerals from the soil. By the mid-eighteenth century, wealthy British farmers enthusiastically adopted crop rotation.

Traditionally, seeds were sown by hand, with much being lost to wind or birds. Jethro Tull invented a seed drill that dug a hole, trickled in the seed, and covered it with earth. Sowing seeds in rows also made weeding easier. Another innovation was the horse hoe, which allowed for weeding multiple rows at once. By... Continue reading "Agricultural Revolution: Innovations, Growth & Trade Impact" »

2.1: Impact in the Primary Sector

• Agriculture: Groundwater irrigation (depletes), chemical fertilizers (pollute), greenhouse farming (gets dirty).

2.2 Deforestation: Destruction of land and vegetation cover.

• Consequences: Soil erosion; gradual process of movement and transport of the upper layer of soil by different agents causing its deterioration in the long term.
• Loss of biodiversity; reduction in an area's biodiversity.

2.3 Overfishing: Depletes the stock of fish in a body of water by excessive fishing.

3. Atmospheric Pollution: Air pollution is the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, caused by human activity and natural processes.

• 3.1 Acid Rain: A form of precipitation with

Refugee Movements: Causes and Economic Impact

What is a humanitarian crisis?

Nowadays, there are many refugee movements caused by various humanitarian crises. A humanitarian crisis can be defined as a situation in which there is an exceptional and generalized threat to human life, health, or subsistence. These crises usually appear within the context of an existing lack of protection, where a series of pre-existing factors are exacerbated by a natural disaster or armed conflict and, as a consequence, the destructive effects are multiplied.

Types of emergencies

Humanitarian crises can be grouped into three categories:

• Natural disasters — geophysical, climatological, meteorological, or biological events.
• Man-made emergencies — armed conflicts,

Absolutism and the Decline of Feudalism in Europe

1. Absolutism and Parliament

• Absolutism: The king has all the power in society.
• Parliament: The king does not have all the power; the people have a say in government.

2. Economic Changes

2.1 Agriculture

• Agriculture became less productive.
• The land became less fertile due to frosts, heavy rain, and droughts.
• Demand for agricultural products decreased.

2.2 Craft Production

• Craft production continued to be regulated by associations called guilds.
• The domestic system allowed for cheaper products to be produced more efficiently.

2.3 Trade

• Spain, Portugal, Italy, England, and the United Provinces became important trading nations.

2.4 Taxes

• Ordinary people were taxed to pay for the military and luxuries of the court.

Ancient India: Geography and Early Settlements

In northern India, the Brahmaputra, Ganges, and Indus rivers carry rich silt from the mountains to the plains. India’s early settlers farmed and later built walled settlements in these fertile river valleys, marking the beginning of civilization in India.

In some parts of the Deccan Plateau in southern India, rich black soil is ideal for growing cotton.

The Eastern and Western Ghats are located near India’s coasts. The Western Ghats are notably higher and wetter than their eastern counterparts. Along India’s northern border lie the Himalayas, the highest mountains in the world. The Hindu Kush range, running through present-day Pakistan, provides crucial access to the Indian subcontinent via... Continue reading "Ancient India: Geography, Empires, and Cultural Milestones" »