Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Climate Patterns in Spain

In winter, polar air masses move south, and Atlantic storms significantly impact the Atlantic coast of the peninsula but rarely reach the interior. On the map, a cold front associated with a low-pressure system approaches the Atlantic Peninsula while an anticyclone dominates.

In the Mediterranean, storms also originate when hot air masses come into contact with cold air, which usually happens in spring and especially in fall. Fall storms often cause torrential rains of short duration but high intensity.

Biodiversity in Spain

Spain is a place that has a high biodiversity worldwide, ranking second after tropical forests. This feature is due to different causes:

• a) Spain encompasses three major plant domains: The Atlantic

History

History is the science of humanity's past events in a particular space and time, analyzing its causes to better understand our present.

Sources of Information

Historians study the past because they cannot directly observe it. They seek clues, a collection of traces called primary sources, such as letters. Secondary materials are what other historians have written.

Ages of History

Ancient Age

The Ancient Age begins with the appearance of writing and ends with the fall of the Roman Empire at the hands of the Barbarians in the 5th century AD (476 AD).

Middle Ages

The Middle Ages is the historical period of Western civilization between the 5th and 15th centuries. It conventionally begins in 476 AD with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ends... Continue reading "Human History: From Prehistory to Contemporary Times" »

The Impact of Developmentalism on Urban Growth

From the second half of the 1950s, an era of strong economic growth and rapid industrialization, known as developmentalism, began. This change had a profound impact on cities.

During this period, initial policies promoted massive state housing subsidies, which fostered the growth of numerous neighborhoods in most cities.

Councils initiated modern municipal urban planning through the General Urban Plan. Land was classified into distinct zones:

• Urban land
• Developable land
• Rustic or undeveloped land

It was a time marked by a significant lack of urban services. While a large number of houses were constructed, the parallel development of essential services lagged behind.

Traffic congestion and circulation issues... Continue reading "Urban Evolution: Developmentalism's Impact and Post-Industrial City Shifts" »

Transport is of great importance in Spain, particularly in its more developed cities. It is a system that facilitates the movement of people and goods through interconnected infrastructure networks, including roads, ports, airports, and railways.

Characteristics of the Spanish Transport System

The Spanish transport system exhibits several distinct characteristics:

• Influence of the Natural Environment: The challenging relief necessitates the construction of expensive bridges and tunnels, increasing infrastructure costs.
• Radial Network Centered in Madrid: The network, particularly roads and railways, is predominantly radial with Madrid as the central hub. This radial structure also significantly impacts air transport, as Madrid hosts numerous domestic

Ecological Reserves

An ecological reserve is a natural area, either virgin or semi-virgin, where numerous animal and plant species coexist alongside abiotic factors such as water, soil, and sunlight. The role of an ecological reserve is to protect a natural area in its current state to maintain its unmodified condition. Many ecological reserves exist worldwide, including Shark Island in Sonora, Calakmul in Quintana Roo, and the Centla Swamps biosphere reserve in Tabasco, among others.

National Parks and Nature Reserves

National parks and nature reserves are areas selected by governments or private organizations for special protection against deterioration and environmental degradation. Selection criteria vary, encompassing natural beauty, scientific... Continue reading "Ecological Reserves and National Parks" »

Population Trends in Developed Countries

Population in Developed Countries: Weak Growth

The pace of population growth is very weak, around 0.2%. This weak growth is due to very low birth rates; the average fertility rate is 1.5 children per woman.

Main factors causing this low birth rate:

• The progressive incorporation of women into the labor market and the difficulty of balancing work and childcare.
• The delay in the age of starting a family and having the first child.
• The significant levels of expenditure on child maintenance.
• The change in social norms.

High Life Expectancy and Aging

The average life expectancy exceeds 79 years. Because of this and the low birth rate, developed countries are aging. The most affected countries are Japan and European... Continue reading "Population Trends: Developed vs. Developing Nations" »

The Tracks or Consequences of Imperialism

Colonialism brought significant economic and cultural changes, profoundly impacting the lifestyles of indigenous peoples.

Economic Exploitation

Europeans practiced a plunder economy, exploiting resources at the lowest possible cost. European settlers appropriated land, displacing indigenous populations, some of whom were systematically exterminated. Large companies received concessions to exploit the land through the plantation system, often with forced labor and mistreatment of the native people. Forced labor and the destruction of traditional activities increased the misery of the indigenous population. Railways, highways, ports, and telegraph cables were designed to facilitate exploitation by the metropolis.... Continue reading "Imperialism's Impact and Expansion: 19th and 20th Centuries" »

Key Events of the 15th Century

• 1488: Bartolomeu Dias, after a journey around the coast of Africa and enduring storms, reached the southern tip of the continent. King John II of Portugal renamed it the Cape of Good Hope.
• 1492: Christopher Columbus, in command of two caravels and a ship, set sail from Palos de la Frontera, Spain, heading into the Atlantic Ocean. In October, he reached the island of Guanahani, which he named San Salvador.
• 1493: Columbus embarked on his second voyage to America. Pope Alexander VI agreed with the Spanish monarchs to grant them dominion over the newly discovered territories.

Key Events of the 16th Century

• 1501: Amerigo Vespucci, for whom the American continent is named, visited Brazil with a Portuguese fleet.
• 1502:

Population Growth in the 18th and 19th Centuries

Since the mid-18th century, the increase in food production made possible a high population growth. Famines disappeared, and the population, better fed, had greater resistance to diseases and epidemics.

This growth was the result of changes in fertility and mortality. In the 18th century, birth rates rose from 32.5 per thousand at the beginning of the century to 37 per thousand at the end, due to the decline in marriage age and the number of celibate individuals, improving the economic situation.

The reduction in mortality was the result of better nutrition. The mortality rate declined by one-third, from around 32 per thousand in 1700 to just above 20 per thousand in the late 19th century.

Life expectancy... Continue reading "Population Growth and Industrial Development in the 18th and 19th Centuries" »