Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Climate Types in Spain

• Coastal Mediterranean Climate

  Extends along the Mediterranean coast and the Balearic Islands. Average annual rainfall is between 400 and 700 mm, higher in the north than in the south. Rainfall is highly irregular, with a maximum in autumn (due to the 'cold drop' phenomenon) and a minimum in summer. This situation is caused by the low humidity of arriving air masses. Temperatures are mild in winter (8-12°C) and high in summer (23-26°C), with a thermal amplitude between 12 and 18°C.

• Inland Mediterranean Climate

  Located in the interior of the peninsula, characterized by strong continentality due to the relief and distance from the sea. Rainfall peaks in spring, with minimums in summer and winter (between 350 and 600 mm per

Spanish Conquest and Colonization of America

In the early sixteenth century, voyages to the New World intensified. Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastián Elcano completed the first circumnavigation of the globe. Subsequent expeditions led to significant conquests, notably that of Hernán Cortés in Mexico.

A pivotal conquest of this period was that of Peru, where the vast Inca Empire dominated a large territory. Here, Francisco Pizarro, taking advantage of internal disputes within the Inca leadership, successfully captured the Inca ruler and subjugated their capital, Cuzco. This conquest formed the basis of the Viceroyalty of Peru, which later incorporated lands in Chile, explored by Diego de Almagro and Pedro de Valdivia.

The Spanish conquest... Continue reading "Spanish Colonial Era: Conquest, Exploitation, and Global Impact" »

Santiago

Plant:

• Type of Work: Construction of architecture.
• Title: St. James Cathedral.
• Location: Santiago de Compostela, La Coruña, Spain.
• Author: Unknown.
• Date: 1075 to 1128.
• Style: Romanesque.

Technical Analysis:

• Shape: Romanesque cathedral, typical pilgrimage church model with a Latin cross plan and a head featuring an ambulatory and apses.
• Overview: One of the largest Romanesque buildings, it features a narthex at its feet, housing the Portico de la Gloria. The interior is divided into three naves. The central nave has a barrel vault, while the lower side aisles have cross vaults. Arches connect the aisles to the nave, with external openings illuminating the upper nave.

The vaults rest on compound pillars with adjacent columns, the central nave... Continue reading "Santiago de Compostela Cathedral: Architectural and Historical Overview" »

The Industrial Revolution: Origins in Britain

The first Industrial Revolution, occurring in Britain in the late eighteenth century, marked a profound transformation in the British economy and society. The most immediate changes were in the production process: what, how, and where goods were produced. Work shifted from the production of primary products to manufactured goods and services. The volume of manufactured products grew dramatically through increased technical efficiency.

Productivity growth, in contrast, stemmed from the systematic application of new technological knowledge and experience, leading to increased output. This also favored the creation of large firms in specific geographical areas. Thus, the Industrial Revolution led to... Continue reading "Britain's Industrial Revolution: Economic & Social Transformation" »

England, Home of the Industrial Revolution

This kingdom was small but industrially a head movement, its leadership for a century due to the following conditions:

1. It was the nation most favored by the commercial revolution.
2. It had obtained the most valuable colonies in the Western Hemisphere.
3. A large proportion of profits from overseas trade was available for productive investments.
4. Its military expenditures were lower, and it had excellent administration.
5. Nowhere else in society was trade as developed; it was organized as a legal business and had the best banking system in Europe.

Impact of the Industrial Revolution

• The development of capitalism and the rise of the bourgeoisie in the 19th century.
• The Industrial Revolution brought commercial development

The European Society of the Old Regime

The Old Regime in Europe was characterized by an aristocratic social structure, legal privileges, and a rigid social division into three estates: the Nobility, the Clergy, and the Third Estate (commoners).

The first two estates held significant privileges, while the vast majority of the population, the Third Estate, engaged in productive activities and struggled for survival. This society was fundamentally based on inherited inequality, favoring a privileged minority.

Social Dynamics in 18th Century Europe

During the 18th century, Europe witnessed the rise of the bourgeoisie, whose tastes and values began to challenge and even dominate aristocratic norms.

The Nobility

• Privileges by Birth: Nobles enjoyed extensive

Understanding Early Human History

Hominid Species

• Homo sapiens sapiens
• Homo neanderthalensis
• Homo erectus
• Australopithecus

The Paleolithic and Neolithic Periods

Paleolithic: The primary period of prehistory, also known as the Old Stone Age. Characterized by nomadic hunter-gatherer societies.

Neolithic: Follows the Paleolithic period. Marked by the beginning of food production (agriculture and livestock) and sedentary settlements.

Concern for the Afterlife

(Information about the reason for concern is missing from the original text.)

Prehistoric Painting

Cantabrian Painting: Naturalistic paintings, such as those found in Altamira.

Mediterranean Painting: Schematic group paintings.

Early Life and Egyptian Concepts

Houses

Simple private structures constructed... Continue reading "Key Aspects of Prehistory and Ancient Egypt" »

Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution profoundly changed the lives of people and social structures. It completed the process of the disappearance of the English peasantry and led to the emergence of large cities that became radical industrial centers.

Transformation of Occupational Structure and New Social Classes

The occupational structure of the population changed significantly. As the agricultural population decreased, the number of persons employed in various branches of industry increased, leading to the rise of two new social groups:

• The Proletariat (Working Class): These individuals worked in factories or workshops in exchange for a salary. The vast majority were former farmers who left the countryside to work

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began in England around the 1780s and subsequently spread to Europe and the USA. It consisted of substituting the workforce of people and animals for machines, and replacing craft workshops with factories.

Economic Impact

The primary sector saw a rise in yields and productivity. For example, in 1650, one farm worker fed 1.5 persons, but by 1880, one worker could feed 2.5 persons.

Causes of the Revolution

• Introduction of new machines
• Improved tillage
• Quadrennial crop rotation
• Use of fertilizer to increase production, leading to more animals and more fertilizer (manure), thus improving production
• A new ownership structure of the land: the desire to privatize communal lands brought benefits by allowing

The primary or agricultural sector consists of economic activities related to the processing of natural resources into unprocessed primary products.

Traditional Energy Sources

Coal

Coal is a mineral fuel. Its advantage is abundance; its drawbacks are that it is a nonrenewable resource and highly polluting.

Producing countries: China, USA, India, and Russia.

Oil

Oil is a mineral composed of a blend of hydrocarbons. It is used after a refining process. Its advantages are easy extraction and transport; its inconveniences are that it is a nonrenewable resource and highly polluting.

Producing countries: Saudi Arabia, United States, Russia, Iraq, Mexico.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons. Its origin is the same as that of oil. It has been... Continue reading "Primary Sector, Energy Sources, and Industry Types" »