Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

South American and North American Massifs

Brasilia Massif

The Brasilia Massif is the most extensive plateau in South America, with the largest area of outcrop. Fractures are caused by the Amazon and La Plata rivers, which, on their journey, navigate the uneven terrain with jumps and falls. To the west, it is dominated by high and low plateaus. Biomes include forest and savanna. The population is sparse, mostly concentrated in the coastal strip.

Patagonian Massif

The Patagonian Massif covers the Andean Patagonia, south of the Colorado River. It presents as a large stepped plateau, descending from the Andes to the Atlantic, culminating abruptly in a steep coast. Its external appearance is varied, featuring plateaus, river valleys, ravines, and low,... Continue reading "South American and North American Massifs: Characteristics" »

Global Economy and Globalization

• Key Concepts: Understanding the fundamentals of the global economy.
• Domestic vs. Multinational Enterprise: A multinational enterprise operates in multiple countries, unlike a domestic enterprise.
• Globalization Manifestation: Globalization is evident through increased international trade, distributed production across countries, intensified international financial flows, and numerous trade agreements.
• Factors Driving Globalization: The communications revolution and the Internet have significantly contributed to globalization.
• International Organizations: Should there be international organizations governing the world economy? This is debatable, with potential benefits for poorer countries but concerns about equal

A composite linear graph represents the evolution of the number of visitors (in millions) and tourism receipts (in millions of euros) in Spain between 1955 and 2007.

The evolution of visitors and tourism revenue has experienced an increasing trend over the period, except at specific moments linked to economic crises.

Since the 1960s, Spain has experienced great development, and today, tourism is the second largest in the world by the number of foreign tourists and revenue received.

The "Sun and Beach" Model of the 1960s

The tourist model introduced in the 1960s was "sun and beach." It is characterized by an abundant and cheap tourist, which led to massive demand, with medium to medium-low purchasing power, concentrated in summer and in areas of... Continue reading "Spain's Tourism Growth: Visitors and Revenue 1955-2007" »

Types of Labor Mobility

• Change of company without change of residence (Geographic Immobility).
• Change of occupation without change of business or residence (Functional Mobility).
• Change of employment and enterprise without changing residence.
• Change of residence without a change of occupation or business (Geographic Mobility).
• Change of residence and business/occupation (Migration).

Determinants of Migration

• Income differences per person.
• Wage differentials between jobs.
• Overall and sector-specific unemployment rates.
• Family ties.
• Level of education.
• Age and sex.
• Distance between origin and destination.
• Language.
• Benefits (e.g., social welfare).

Consequences of Migration

• Increase in migrants' revenues.
• Reduction of wage differentials between origin and destination.

Population Distribution Factors

The population is concentrated in places with favorable characteristics:

• Places where water abounds, necessary for life and economic activities.
• Areas with temperate climates.
• Valleys and plains, often with fertile soil for agriculture.
• Areas rich in mineral and energy resources.
• Populated areas since ancient times.
• Areas with high economic activity.
• Sometimes, governments have forced people to move to a region.

Major Population Concentrations

Large concentrations of population include:

• East Asia: This region contains over half of the world's population.
• Europe: Especially the central area.
• Northwest Coast of America: The third most populous area with 300 million inhabitants.

Smaller pockets include the Gulf of Guinea, the... Continue reading "Population Distribution, Migration, and Demographics: A Global Analysis" »

Consequences of Colonization in Africa

In just 20 years, starting from the 1884 Berlin Conference, Africa was completely colonized. Due to the continent's perceived impenetrability, colonies were demarcated along artificial meridian lines and parallels. This arbitrary division often grouped disparate ethnic, religious, and cultural populations within single states, leading to significant consequences. While pre-colonial Africa was characterized by tribal affiliations rather than unified nations, resulting in frequent inter-tribal conflicts, colonial boundaries exacerbated these tensions. Furthermore, colonial powers established systems of economic exploitation, prioritizing resource extraction over infrastructure development for local populations.... Continue reading "Colonization of Africa and Asia: Impacts and Transformations" »

Characteristics of Human Settlements

Human settlements can be classified into two groups:

• Urban Settlements: This group includes towns, cities, metropolises, and megacities. Their functions are:
  • To be political and administrative centers
  • To be secondary and tertiary economic centers
  • To be key transportation facilities and communication centers
  • To be centers of social interaction
• Rural Settlements: This group includes concentrated settlements and dispersed settlements. Their functions are linked to:
  • Food production
  • Extraction of raw materials
  • Secondary economic activities

Cities are a human phenomenon; they do not arise spontaneously but originate in a historical process.

Urban Features

The urban environment is defined as a set of special conditions formed... Continue reading "Human Settlements: Urban and Rural Characteristics" »

Agrarian Transformations in 18th Century Britain

The changes in British agriculture during the eighteenth century were so significant that they are often referred to as an Agricultural Revolution, occurring alongside the Industrial Revolution.

As large-scale industry developed, agricultural activity also advanced, characterized by:

• High productivity
• An advanced degree of mechanization
• Ownership concentrated among entrepreneurs

This agricultural revolution involved both technical changes and reforms in land structure and distribution.

Technical and Structural Changes

Key technical advancements included:

• The elimination of the fallow period through the adoption of crop rotation systems, preventing fields from lying unused.
• Selection of improved crop varieties

Agriculture in Spain

Spain has a modern agriculture and market characterized by the following features:

• Prevalence of intensive farming, helped by the expansion of irrigation and poor use of fallow.
• Use of new technologies, fertilizers and pesticides, selection of seeds, and new farming systems (sanded, greenhouses, etc.).
• Specialization of crops by region. For example, the Almeria coastline has specialized in greenhouse vegetable crops.
• Existence of more prepared personnel and rejuvenation of agricultural workers by immigrants.
• Crops for the farm and food industry.

Challenges Facing Spanish Agriculture

However, current Spanish agriculture is facing many problems and challenges:

• The abandonment of farming in many areas of inland Spain.
• The use in various

The Importance of the Service Sector

The service sector plays a crucial role in modern economies, exhibiting distinct characteristics in developed and underdeveloped countries:

• Diversity: In developed countries, services are widespread and diverse, while in underdeveloped countries, more basic services predominate.
• Access: The majority of the population in developed countries has access to a wide range of services. In contrast, access to services is limited for a significant portion of the population in underdeveloped countries.
• Contribution to GDP: In developed countries, a significant portion of GDP comes from business and public services. In underdeveloped countries, personal services contribute more significantly.
• Employment: Developed countries