Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Machines, Steam, and Factories

Another essential element in this change was technological innovation.

Machines substituted human labor. Each technical progress meant a rise in productivity and a decrease in production costs, which allowed goods to be sold cheaper, increasing demand and generating greater profits.

The first machines were driven by human force and then hydro-electric power. But the source of energy that revolutionized production was steam. The steam engine, invented by James Watt in 1769, used coal as fuel. It became the symbol of the Industrial Revolution.

Mechanization and the introduction of new energy sources caused the spread of the factory system of production. This system consists of concentrating workers and machines in large... Continue reading "Key Innovations of the Industrial Revolution" »

Understanding Population Dynamics and Demographic Concepts

Factors Influencing Population Distribution

Population distribution is influenced by a variety of factors, which can be broadly categorized as favorable or unfavorable for settlement and density.

Favorable Conditions for Population Density

• Stable Governments: Countries with political stability often attract and retain populations.
• Low and Flat Areas: Geographically accessible and easier to develop for agriculture and infrastructure.
• Favorable Living Conditions: Areas offering good quality of life and amenities.
• Temperate Climates: Climates that are not extreme, supporting comfortable living and agriculture.
• Preference for Security: Regions where safety and stability are prioritized.
• Areas Rich

England

England - London, Oxford, Liverpool, plains and moors, 60 million dense, 36 countries, industrialized since 18th century. Biggest growth in computing and banking. Many cathedrals and churches, small villages, old market towns, long coastline. Lake District inspired romantic poems.

Scotland

Scotland - Full of traditions, 5 million inhabitants. Part of GB since 1707 but still remains independent. Hills, lakes (lochs), fast-flowing rivers, deep valleys. Big cities like Glasgow and Edinburgh are international centers of music, festival of music and drama, engineering, printing, legal and educational systems.

Wales

Wales - Mountainous country. English monarch has the title Prince of Wales. Long rivers, wide lakes, high hills. Highest peak is... Continue reading "The United Kingdom: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland" »

The natural movement of the Spanish population has experienced three stages in its history, called demographic systems.

Ancient Demographic System

This system refers to pre-industrial societies. In Spain, this system was maintained until the beginning of the 19th century.

Death rates and birth rates were both high and fluctuated rapidly according to natural events, such as drought and disease, to produce a relatively constant and young population.

• Birth rates: Family planning and contraception were virtually nonexistent; therefore, birth rates were essentially only limited by the ability of women to bear children. Children contributed to the economy of the household from an early age. There were no education or entertainment expenses. In addition,

The Autonomous Communities of Spain

The Spanish Constitution of 1979 led Spain to be organized into different autonomous communities. Between 1980 and 1985, the 17 autonomous communities that exist today were established. In 1995, the statutes of autonomous cities were approved for the two Spanish cities in North Africa: Ceuta and Melilla.

Spain's Provincial Organization

Spain has 50 provinces belonging to the different autonomous communities according to their geography, cultural characteristics, and common history. There are also the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla.

For historical reasons, some of these provinces are not located within the autonomous communities they belong to. For example, Condado de Treviño belongs to Burgos, but it... Continue reading "The Autonomous Communities and Administrative Divisions of Spain" »

The Secondary Sector

Industry and Construction

The secondary sector consists of construction and industry. It utilizes raw materials, which are resources that need to be transformed into finished or semi-finished products. Energy sources are crucial to power the machines used in this sector.

Human Resources

Developed Countries:

• Controlled working hours
• Right to strike
• Unemployment benefits
• Social protection and health insurance

Developing Countries:

• Minimum health and safety standards

Capital

Capital is provided by private companies, the state, or both. Companies can be owned by individuals or collectives.

Main Industrial Areas in the World

Europe:

• EU: Steel, aeronautics, aerospace
• Russian Federation: Energy sources and mineral resources

Asia:

• Japan, China,

The Urban Shift: Global City Growth

Some people love cities, and others find them challenging. Yet, more people than ever are choosing urban living. The first cities emerged approximately 5,000 years ago. Since then, cities have consistently served as vital centers for government, commerce, and education. Globally, over one million people relocate from rural areas to cities every week. By 2030, an estimated 60 percent of the world's population will reside in urban areas.

Megacities: Defining Urban Giants

These urban centers are growing larger than ever before. A megacity is defined as an urban area with a population exceeding 10 million people. In 1995, there were 14 megacities worldwide. By 2015, this number grew to 21, and the ranking continues... Continue reading "Urban Transformation: Megacity Growth and Global Challenges" »

- INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM : Capitalism is an economic system in wich the means of production are predominantly privately owned. Capitalism appears in various forms with various degrees of governmental control, bur its basic theoty is that of a free market. Economic activities respond to the free initiative of individuals, whose objectiveis the persuit of maximum profit. 

HOW DID THE PRODUCTION OF GOODS CHANGE DURING THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION?

aThe driving forces of industrialisation(48) The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain in the mid-18th century. The following factors explain why Britain pioneered the revolution, overtaking neighbouring countries and becoming the first industrialised country ('the workshop of the world'):

• A political system in which the power of the monarchy had been limited by Parliament since the 17th century and in which the bourgeoisie had a lot of influence.
• Population growth that had led to a rise in demand and an abundance of labour for the new factories.
• An abundance of resources and raw materials, especially coal, which became the main source of energy.
• An extensive transport

North Africa