Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies in Europe

In the 15th century, European monarchs reinforced their power by reducing the influence of the Church, nobility, municipalities, and parliaments. This era was marked by various civil wars. To consolidate their authority, monarchs implemented several key changes:

• Created a bureaucracy and a professional, centralized administration.
• Built a standing army with troops paid for and directed by the monarch.
• Increased taxes to finance their growing activities.
• Established a diplomatic system to maintain relations with other countries.

The Formation of Great Kingdoms

During this period, Europe was divided into small states, but they began to unite through marriage alliances and conquest. Four great kingdoms emerged... Continue reading "The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies and Spanish Unification" »

Key Figures of the Age of Exploration

Hernán Cortés: Spanish explorer who landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519. In 1521, he and his Indian allies captured and demolished Tenochtitlan.

Malinche: A young Indian woman who served as Cortés's translator and adviser. The Spanish called her Doña Malinche.

Moctezuma: Aztec emperor who drove the Spanish from Tenochtitlan. He was killed in the fighting.

Francisco Pizarro: Spanish explorer who captured and killed Atahualpa.

Atahualpa: Incan ruler who won the throne from his brother in a bloody civil war.

Colonial Administration and Society

Council of the Indies: Established to pass laws and maintain strict control over the colonies.

Encomienda: The right to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in... Continue reading "Key Figures and Concepts of the Age of Exploration and Enlightenment" »

The Birth of the Modern World

Tense International Relations

The late 19th and early 20th centuries were marked by tense international relations. Industrialized countries focused on large-scale production, fueled by colonization and a growing consumer society. This led to inequalities and economic crises, causing a decline in the influence of realism in international politics.

Political Tensions in Europe

While armed conflicts were avoided within Europe, there was a significant increase in the production of arms and military equipment. Germany's foreign policy under Bismarck focused on alliances with Austria, Russia, and Italy, leading to the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine. Wilhelm II's dismissal of Bismarck and subsequent expansionist policies... Continue reading "The Second Industrial Revolution and the Rise of Imperialism" »

How Colonial Empires Divided the World

A. The British Empire

In the late 19th century, Great Britain possessed the largest colonial empire, controlling vital maritime trade routes with strategic bases in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, as well as the Mediterranean.

• Africa: The British established a vast empire stretching from Cairo in the north to Cape Town in the south.
• India: As the primary British colony, India served as a massive market for British goods and a critical supplier of raw materials.
• Geopolitical Rivalries: To secure the region around India, Great Britain competed with France for control of Burma (1886) and with Russia for influence in Afghanistan and Tibet.

B. The French Empire

France maintained the second-largest colonial... Continue reading "Colonial Empires: How Global Powers Divided the World" »

The Protestant Reformation: Origins and Division

The Reformation was a religious movement which began in the first half of the 16th century. It instigated the division of the Christian Church and the founding of Protestant churches.

Causes of the Reformation

The primary causes of the Reformation were:

• The low clergy's lack of training.
• The bad example set by the high clergy.
• The Church's immense wealth.
• The buying and selling of ecclesiastical positions (simony).
• The sale of indulgences.

Key Figures of the Movement

• Martin Luther: The German priest was scandalized by the amount of corruption in the Church. He published the famous “95 Theses” in 1517, challenging papal authority.
• Ulrich Zwingli: A Swiss pastor who founded the Reformed Church in the

The First Industrial Revolution

The First Industrial Revolution emerged at the end of the 18th century and was based on energy derived from coal. The metal and textile industries were the most important industries at the time. They were located near coal deposits and ports in countries such as the United Kingdom, the USA, France, and Germany.

The Second Industrial Revolution

The Second Industrial Revolution was based on energy derived from oil and electricity. It occurred between 1870 and 1970 and was marked by the invention of the combustion engine and assembly line production (initiated by Henry Ford with the Model T car). The industries most affected were the automobile, chemical, iron and steel, and household appliance industries. They were... Continue reading "Evolution of Global Industry and Technological Revolutions" »

Geographical Vocabulary: Water, Land, and Urban Areas

Water and Sea Terms

• Beach
• Coast (Note: Original had 'cost', corrected to 'coast')
• Coastline
• Glacier
• Coral Reef
• Tide (Portuguese: maré)
• Source (Portuguese: fonte)
• Wave (Portuguese: onda)

Land, Hills, and Mountains

• Desert
• Vegetation
• Peak (Portuguese: pico)
• Plateau (Portuguese: planalto)
• Reef
• Cliff
• Ridge (Portuguese: cume)

Agriculture and Rural Land

• Vegetation
• Fertile
• Irrigation
• Land
• Trees
• Seeds

Towns and Cities

• Pollution
• Conurbation
• Industrialized (Corrected spelling)
• Congestion
• Underdeveloped (Portuguese: em desenvolvimento)
• Urban Sprawl (Portuguese: expansão urbana)
• Densely-populated (Corrected spelling and hyphenation)

English Grammar: Understanding Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentences, or If-Clauses, are used... Continue reading "Essential English Vocabulary and Conditional Sentences" »

Dividing the World

Globalization's Influence

Globalization has extended the culture and way of life of the USA and some European countries to the rest of the world.

The world today can be divided into two main parts: central areas and peripheral areas.

Global Cities

Global cities (New York, London, Tokyo, Paris, Berlin) are the main decision-making centers where multinational companies, large banks, and important international organizations are located.

Support for Globalization

Supporters of globalization include international organizations like the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the G8, and the G20. They use the following arguments:

• Globalization promotes the exchange of goods, services, capital, and people.

Isolationist USA and the Return to Normalcy

In 1917, President Wilson took the USA into World War I. It was a controversial decision. Wilson wanted the USA to take a lead in the League of Nations, but he needed the support of Congress. It was formed by political enemies, which brought him down. Isolationists won the debate.

In 1920, Republican President Warren Harding promised a return to normalcy. Over the next 10 years, the USA became richer as its economy boomed.

The Economic Boom of the 1920s

Foundations of Industrial Strength

The USA was a vast country, rich in natural resources with a growing population. Its home market was large and expanding. The USA was a leading oil producer and saw the rise of new technology, a new film industry, and... Continue reading "American Isolationism and the Roaring Twenties Economy" »

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

The year 1750 marked the beginning of a profound process of industrialization in Great Britain, a transformation that continued throughout the 19th century. This era saw significant technological advances that reshaped the economy, as industry expanded and traditional agriculture became less dominant.

Several key factors contributed to the onset of the Industrial Revolution:

• Improved Living Conditions: In the 18th century, advancements in hygiene, nutrition, and medicine led to improved living conditions. This resulted in significant population growth, which in turn increased demand for food and other goods, while also providing a large workforce for emerging industries.
• Agricultural Revolution: The enclosure