Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Economy

Major Issues in Joint Ventures

1. Joint venture name and its legal nature (limited liability company or not)
2. Scope and scale of production or operations
3. Investment amount, unit of currency, and equity (ownership) distribution
4. Forms of contribution (cash, technology, land, or equipment)
5. Responsibilities of each party
6. Technology or knowledge transfer
7. Marketing issues, such as focusing on export market or local market
8. Composition of the board of directors (in EJVs)
9. Nomination and responsibilities of high-level managers
10. Joint venture project preparation and construction issues
11. Labor management (various human resource issues)
12. Accounting, finance, and tax issues (the currency unit of accounting)
13. Alliance duration
14. Disposal of assets after expiration
15. Amendments, alterations,

Monopoly

A monopoly exists when a firm is the sole seller of a product without close substitutes.

How Monopolies Arise

1. Natural Monopoly: Economies of scale allow only one firm to produce the entire output at the lowest average cost.
2. Control of Resources: Ownership or control of essential raw materials or unique production techniques.
3. Legal Protection: Patents, copyrights, and trademarks grant exclusive production rights.

Public Policies Against Monopoly

1. Competitive Legalisation: Banning anti-competitive pricing strategies like price fixing, predatory pricing, or price gouging.
2. Public Ownership: Government operation of a private monopoly.

Price Discrimination

Price discrimination occurs when a firm charges different prices for the same product to different... Continue reading "Monopoly, Monopolistic Competition, and Price Discrimination in Economics" »

Parallel Markets and the Gray Market

A parallel market occurs when a manufacturing company sells its products to a specific country, but those products are then sold in another unintended country. This is commonly known as the gray market. For example, in the case of Levi's vs. Tesco several years ago, Tesco imported Levi's jeans from the USA at a lower price than the authorized price set by the manufacturer. Levi's took legal action, and the verdict was in favor of Levi's.

Premium Pricing Strategies

Companies utilize premium pricing when they create a unique brand. This strategy is used where a substantial competitive advantage exists and the manufacturer knows they can charge a higher price. Premium prices are typically charged for luxury products... Continue reading "International Pricing Strategies and Global Trade Dynamics" »

MARKET VALUE PERFORMANCE MEASURES

MVA

Market Capitalization = (#shares * price per share) - Equity

MTBR

Measures how much value has been added for each dollar that shareholders have invested = MVOEQUITY / BVOEQUITY

MEASURING PROFITABILITY

EVA

Economic Value Add or Residual Income = The profit after deducting all costs including the cost of capital = After-tax operating income (after tax interest + NI) - (cost of capital * total capitalization at the start of the year) = ((1- tax rate)(interest expense) + NI) - (cost of capital)(long term debt + total equity beginning of year)

ROE

NI / Equity start

ROA

(1-tax rate) * interest expense + NI / Total Assets start

ROC

(1- tax rate) * interest expense + NI / LTD start + Equity start

MEASURING EFFICIENCY

How effectively... Continue reading "Financial Performance Measures and Analysis" »

The organizational structure is the framework of hierarchy, relationships, responsibilities, and information flow within a firm. It is shaped by several factors, including company size, international orientation, the number and consistency of product lines, and expansion plans.

Defining Organizational Structure

Dimensions of Activity and Responsibility

• Horizontal: Focuses on the division of *activities*.
• Vertical: Pertains to *authority* and *hierarchical relations*.

Key Organizational Structures for International Operations

Functional Structure

A functional structure groups each portion of the organization according to its purpose, such as a marketing department, a sales department, or a production department.

Export Department

Companies typically... Continue reading "Global Business Organizational Structures" »

Understanding Poverty

Defining Poverty

Relative poverty refers to economic inequality within a society. Individuals or groups experiencing relative poverty have less access to goods and services compared to others.

Absolute poverty signifies the lack of resources to meet basic human needs, such as water, food, sanitation, shelter, clothing, and education.

People Affected by Poverty

Individuals facing poverty often experience disadvantages, including limited access to quality education and increased health risks.

Causes of Poverty

1. Unemployment or Underemployment: Lack of sufficient work opportunities to earn a living wage.
2. Old Age: Insufficient income after retirement.
3. Ill Health: Mental and physical health issues can hinder employment and increase expenses.

Functions of Financial Markets

Price Determination

• When a company has assets listed in a financial market, it can determine their worth.
• Investors can ascertain the value of their investments.
• Markets offer liquidity for investors' assets.

Financial Assets Characteristics

Liquidity

Ease with which an asset can be converted into cash.

Return and Liquidity Relationship

• If an asset is very liquid, the return asked by investors is very low.
• When assets are less liquid, investors demand higher returns.

Risk

The probability of not recovering the principal or the coupons.

Rating agencies analyze the risk associated with issuers.

Types of Financial Markets

Primary Markets

These markets facilitate the issuance of new securities. Investors pay for the assets to the... Continue reading "Financial Markets: Functions, Assets, and Indexes Explained" »

Industrial Conveyor Systems and Functions

Conveyors transport goods within operational units, such as production sites, warehouses, transshipment terminals, or airports. Beyond their primary task of conveying, these technologies facilitate distributing, sorting, collecting, buffering, and picking.

Classification of Conveyor Technologies

• Discontinuous conveyors: These produce an intermittent stream of goods and operate in individual working cycles.
• Continuous conveyors: These transport bulk or general cargo continuously.
• Floor-bound conveyors: These operate on the floor or on installations that are flush-mounted in the floor.
• Supported conveyors: These move above the floor on supports or supported rails.
• Suspended conveyors: These move along rails

Business Plan vs. Business Model

A Business Plan is a detailed document (typically 50-100 pages) containing extensive financial projections and loan projections. In contrast, a Business Model is a much less detailed, single concept that describes the specific way a business expects to make money. It illustrates the capabilities and resources required to create, market, and deliver value while generating profitable, sustainable revenue streams.

Common Business Archetypes

Key business archetypes include:

• Entrepreneur
• Manufacturer
• Wholesaler
• Inventor
• Contractor
• Financial Trader

Four Key Aspects of a Business Model

The four pillars of a business model are:

1. Offer
2. Customer
3. Infrastructure
4. Finance (including revenue streams and cost structure)

Scalability in Modern

Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP) Analysis Formulas

Contribution Margin Calculations

• Contribution Margin (CM) per Unit: $P - VC$ (Price minus Variable Cost)
• Total Contribution Margin (TCM): $(P \times Q) - (VC \times Q)$
• CM Ratio: Unit CM / Unit Selling Price
• Variable Expense (VE) Ratio: Unit VE / Unit Selling Price

Break-Even Point (BEP) Determination

1. BEP Equation Method

• Profits: (Sales - Variable Expenses) - Fixed Expenses
• Sales at BEP: Variable Expenses + Fixed Expenses + Profits (where Profits = 0)

2. Contribution Margin Method

• BEP in Units: Fixed Expenses / Unit CM
• BEP in Total Sales Dollars: Fixed Expenses / CM Ratio

Target Profit Calculations (Contribution Margin Approach)

• Unit Sales to Attain Target Profit: (Fixed Expenses + Target Income) / Unit CM
• Dollar