Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Chemistry

Fundamental Science Concepts

1. Key Definitions in Chemistry and Physics

Match the word with its definition:

• Chemical Reaction: A process in which one or more substances (the reactants) are converted to one or more different substances (the products).
• Enzyme: Any of various proteins, originating from living cells, capable of producing chemical changes in organic substances.
• Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change.
• Viscosity: The state of being thick, sticky, and semifluid in consistency, due to internal friction.

2. Common Chemical Formulas

Write the chemical formula for the following substances:

• Water: H₂O
• Oxygen: O₂
• Hydrogen Peroxide: H₂O₂

3. Main Shapes of Bacteria

Identify... Continue reading "Essential Science Knowledge: Biology & Chemistry" »

Quantum Mechanical Rules for Electron Configuration

The Aufbau Principle

Electrons will fill the lowest available energy level first.

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, and they must have opposite spins.

Hund’s Rule (Rule of Maximum Multiplicity)

Orbitals of equal energy (degenerate orbitals) will fill with one electron at a time before pairing up. Single electrons in these orbitals should have the same spin.

Foundational Discoveries in Atomic Theory

Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment

This experiment demonstrated that atoms possess a positively charged nucleus orbited by electrons. Very few positively charged alpha particles were greatly deflected back from the metal foil, indicating a small, dense, positive... Continue reading "Fundamental Principles of Atomic Structure and Quantum Rules" »

Mineral Definition and Fundamental Properties

Minerals are defined as: naturally occurring, inorganic, solids with a definite chemical composition, a regular crystalline structure, and specific and consistent physical properties. The fundamental aspects of this definition are a mineral's chemical composition, crystalline structure, and physical properties.

Different chemical compositions result in different minerals. A good example is the mineral plagioclase. Plagioclase is a member of the feldspar group, but there is more than one type. For instance, albite and anorthite are two examples. Albite has a chemical composition of NaAlSi₃O₈, while anorthite's chemical composition is CaAl₂Si₂O₈. Though very similar, their distinct compositions define... Continue reading "Mineral Identification: Properties and Structure" »

The Sun: Structure and Activity

Galileo's Solar Observations

Galileo Galilei was among the first scientists to study the Sun in detail (circa 1610).

Sun's Chemical Makeup

The Sun's composition is primarily Helium & Hydrogen.

Inside the Sun

Solar Atmosphere Layers

• Photosphere
• Chromosphere
• Corona

Solar Interior Zones

• Core
• Radiative Zone
• Convective Zone

How the Sun Produces Energy

Solar energy is produced by nuclear fusion in the core region, converting hydrogen into helium. This process is the source of the Sun's energy.

The energy output is approximately 9 × 10¹⁰ megatons of TNT per second.

Understanding Solar Wind

Solar Wind is solar material flowing into interplanetary space. The Sun's atmosphere is expanding radially outwards in all directions. Solar... Continue reading "Science Essentials: Sun, Matter, Physics" »

How Solutions are Formed

The particles that make up a solution are in constant movement: they move faster as they go from solid state to liquid state. This happens until we obtain a homogeneous system where all its parts have the same properties. This movement is responsible for them mixing together.

Types of Solutions

Gaseous Solutions

The most important is air.

Liquid Solutions

The most important liquid solutions are those that involve water. When the forces with which the water molecules attract the molecules of the solid are greater than the forces acting between them, the particles separate and form the solution.

Solid Solutions

Alloys are mixtures of metals obtained by mixing together the melted components.

Diluted Solution: Amount of solute small... Continue reading "Formation of Solutions: Types and Properties" »

Indian Classical Music Quiz

a) How many kinds of ‘Graha’ are there?

1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4

(अ). ग्रह के ककतने प्रकार है (i) 1 (ii) 2 (iii) 3 (iv) 4

b) Minimum avartan of ‘Paran’ are:-

1. 4
2. 5
3. 2
4. 1

(ब) ऩरण कम से कम ककतने आवतनय का होता है (i) 4 (ii) 5 (iii) 2 (iv) 1

c) 4 5 6 indicates the Tala Dha Tu Na 0

1. Dadra
2. Keharwa
3. Rupak
4. Dhamar

स)) 4 5 6 ककस ताऱ का दशायता है्- धा तू ना 0 (i) दादरा (ii) कहरवा (iii) रुऩक (iv) धमार

d) How many kinds of ‘Jatti’ are there?

1. 3
2. 4
3. 5
4. 6

(द) िानत के ककतने प्रकार हैं? (i) 3 (ii) 4 (iii) 5 (iv) 6

e) Laggi is used in :-

1. Khyal
2. Dhrupad
3. Bhajan
4. Dhamar

य)... Continue reading "Indian Classical Music Quiz: Graha, Paran, Tala, and Jatti" »

Unit 3, Part 1: Core Chemistry Principles

Transition Metals: Unique Properties Explained

It is surprising that transition metals exhibit similar physical and chemical properties despite having varying numbers of valence electrons.

Unlocking Information from the Periodic Table

The periodic table is a powerful tool from which you can determine:

• Number of protons
• Number of neutrons
• Number of electrons
• Atomic mass
• Atomic number
• Element name
• Atomic symbol
• Valence electron shells
• Total electron shells

Defining Atomic Identity: The Proton

The proton defines the identity of an atom. Its number corresponds to the atomic number, which uniquely identifies each element. The number of protons in an atom never changes.

Subatomic Particle Locations

Each subatomic particle... Continue reading "Atomic Structure & Properties: Essential Chemistry Concepts" »

Nucleus: The Center of an Atom

The nucleus is located at the center of an atom. It is very small and has a positive electrical charge due to the protons. The nucleus contains particles called protons and neutrons, which make up nearly all of the atom's mass.

Electron Cloud: The External Area of an Atom

The electron cloud surrounds the nucleus and is longer than the nucleus. It has an equal but negative electrical charge compared to the protons. The electron cloud contains particles called electrons, and their mass is negligible compared to the protons and neutrons.

Historical Development of Atomic Structure

In the 5th century, ancient Greeks proposed the concept of the atom. In 1808, Dalton discovered the existence of protons and electrons. In 1904,... Continue reading "Atomic Structure and Chemical Reactions: A Comprehensive Overview" »

Physical Changes: States of Matter

Changes of state are fundamental physical changes in matter, and they are reversible. These transformations occur by adding or removing energy from matter, causing it to transition from one state to another. The five states of matter include solid, liquid, gas, and the less common plasma and liquid crystal.

Defining the States of Matter

Solid State Properties

A solid is matter that can be picked up and moved from one place to another without changing its shape or size.

Liquid State Properties

A liquid is matter that changes shape when it moves from one container to another, but its volume remains constant.

Gaseous State Properties

A gas is matter whose shape and volume can change significantly by applying pressure... Continue reading "Matter's Transformations: States and Kinetic Theory" »

Crystalline Solids

Crystal Lattice

The main characteristic of crystalline solids is a regular and repeating pattern of constituent particles. A crystal lattice is a three-dimensional arrangement of points in space, representing the arrangement of these particles.

Unit Cells

Unit cells are the smallest repeating units in a crystal lattice. They are broadly divided into two categories:

• Primitive Unit Cells: Constituent particles are present only at the corners.
• Centred Unit Cells: Contain particles at positions other than corners, in addition to those at the corners. There are three types of centered unit cells:
  • Body-Centred Unit Cells: Contain one particle at the body-center, besides those at the corners.
  • Face-Centred Unit Cells: Contain one particle