Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Biology

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Darwinism and Neo-Darwinism: Evolution Explained

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Darwinism

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)

Basic Principles of Darwinism

  1. Individuals within a population have anatomical, physiological, and behavioral differences.
  2. Each species produces more offspring than can survive to reproductive age, leading to competition.
  3. Competition for resources (struggle for existence) explains why many offspring die.
  4. Natural selection favors individuals with advantageous variations.
  5. Surviving individuals pass favorable variations to their offspring.

Survival of the Fittest

Individuals with favorable characteristics survive and become more common, potentially leading to new species over generations.

Example: Giraffes

  1. Giraffes initially had varied neck and leg lengths.
  2. Natural selection favored
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Functions of Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland, Pancreas, Adrenal Glands, Ovaries, and Testicles

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Pituitary Gland

  • ADH: Decreases the amount of water excreted in urine
  • Oxytocin: Contracts the muscles in the uterus during birth
  • Stimulating hormones: Activate other glands
  • Growth hormone: Lengthens the bones and promotes overall growth

Thyroid Gland

  • Thyroxine: Stimulates metabolism

Parathyroid Glands

  • Parathyroid hormone: Regulates the amount of calcium and phosphorus in the blood



Pancreas

  • Insulin: Controls the level of sugar

Adrenal Glands

  • Adrenaline: Prepares the body to work
  • Corticosteroids: Regulate various metabolic processes
  • Aldosterone: Controls the concentration of sodium and potassium in the blood

Ovaries

  • Estrogens: Produce and maintain female sexual traits
  • Progesterone: Allows the embryo to be implanted in the uterus

Testicles

  • Androgens: Produce and
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The Inheritance of Genes: Patterns, Principles, and Genetic Diseases

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The inheritance of genes follows patterns- Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk who discovered the principles of inheritancewith experiments in which a large number of pea plants were crossed. 1) First, he crossed different varieties of purebred pea plants, then collected and grew the seeds to determine their characteristics

2) Next, he crossed the offspring with each other (self-fertilization) and grew their seeds to similarly determine their characteristics

3) These crosses were performed many times to establish reliable data trends (over 5,000 crosses were performed 

Mendel discovered the following things:

1) When he crossed two different purebred varieties together the results were E.G. When purebred tall and short pea plants were crossed,

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Plant and Animal Classification: Sperm Whale, Cork Oak, and More

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Plant and Animal Classification

Sperm whale - Animalia from stomata plants expel oxygen from their

Cork oak - Plantae leaves, the CO2 from respiration and excess

Crayfish - Animalia of water

Rosebush - Plantae

Starfish - Animalia the transport of substance in the plant take care

Pine tree - Plantae in the stem which travel through the vessel, branches and veins of the leaves

Iberian lynx - Animalia

Holm oak - Plantae

Gymnosperm: Angyonsperm

Seed are not in a fruit, they are in a fruit

Type of leaves: evergreen, deciduous

Flowers: hermaphrodite

Appearance: trees, shrubs, cereals

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The Sounds of Language: A Guide to Phonetic Symbols

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The Sounds of Language

A Guide to Phonetic Symbols

Consonants

SymbolPlace of ArticulationManner of ArticulationDescription
/p/BilabialStopPronounced with contact between the two lips.
/b/BilabialStopPronounced with contact between the two lips.
/t/AlveolarStopThe front of the tongue touches or nearly touches the alveolar ridge.
/d/AlveolarStopThe front of the tongue touches or nearly touches the alveolar ridge.
/k/VelarStopThe back of the tongue touches the velum.
/g/VelarStopThe back of the tongue touches the velum.
/f/LabiodentalFricativeContact between the lower lip and the upper teeth.
/v/LabiodentalFricativeContact between the lower lip and the upper teeth.
/θ/DentalFricativeContact between the front of the tongue and the upper teeth.
/ð/DentalFricativeContact
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Sensory Receptors and Nerves: Comprehensive Details

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Sensory Receptors and Sensory Nerves

Sensory Receptors

Information from the environment and internal organs is detected by sensory receptors. These receptors can be:

  • Surrounded by cells (not neurons)
  • Connected with a neuron (sensory nerve) in which they will generate action potentials
  • Specialized to respond to one particular form of energy

There are many different types of sensory receptors:

  • Mechanoreceptors - detect touch and pressure
  • Thermoreceptors - detect cold and warmth
  • Nociceptors - detect pain
  • Electromagnetic receptors - detect light
  • Chemoreceptors - detect taste, smell, blood O2 and CO2 concentration, blood glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids

A receptor can be excited by:

  • Mechanical deformation - stretches the receptor, opening ion channels
  • Application
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Tdyuiopxñpcoviuy

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Monplological: componing external appeanance and internal structure. Ecological: componing the role played in ecosystem. Polentological:  comparing present life forms to fossiled. Embryological: comparing embryonic development . Genetic: Comparing DNA. Biochermical: Comparing the chemical composition. Cellular: cell types and tissues.  Monera        (Cell Type1): Prokaryote.  (Number of cells2): unicellular.    ( Specialized tissues3) :No.              (Type of nutrition4): autotrphic heterotrophic.         ( Role in ecosystem5): producers descomposers.          Protist             ( 1) Eukaryotic.   (2) unicellular in general.    (3) no.      (4) autotophic heterotrophic.       (5) producers consumers
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Brain Structure and Function: Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Brain Stem

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Spinal Bulb

The spinal bulb is the extension of the medulla. It contains gray matter surrounded by white matter. Ascending neural pathways pass through the spinal bulb. They come from the medulla and provide information to the brain. The right side of the brain receives information from the left side of the body, and the right side receives information from the left. The movement of the right part of the body is controlled by the left side of the brain (and vice versa). It regulates several body functions, such as heartbeat, blood pressure, and breathing.

Brain Stem

The brain stem is located between the spinal bulb and the brain, below the thalamus, and covers several areas of the brain. It regulates sleep, visual and auditory reflexes, and blood

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Origin of Life and Evolution: Theories and Evidence

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Theories on the Origin of Life

The primordial soup hypothesis is incapable of explaining the origin of life because the early atmosphere wasn't composed of the gases described by Oparin and Haldane. Also, we know that in the early atmosphere, there was no ozone layer, so it would make the first molecules very unstable because of UV radiation. The hypothesis was supported by the Miller-Urey experiment, which consisted of the following: a mixture of gases was put in a container, and high-voltage electric shocks were applied. Then, gases were condensed in another container, simulating the primitive ocean. Finally, several organic compounds were found in that simulated "primordial soup," including amino acids. As an alternative to the primordial... Continue reading "Origin of Life and Evolution: Theories and Evidence" »

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Cellular Respiration: Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Processes

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Respiration: The Energy Source of Life

Every living cell needs energy. In humans, our cells need energy for:

  • Contracting muscles
  • Making proteins
  • Making new cells
  • Cell division
  • Producing heat inside the body

All of this energy comes from the food that we eat. The food is digested (broken down) and absorbed from the intestine into the blood. Then, the blood goes to the body, and the cells take the nutrients.

Aerobic Respiration

Most of the time, our cells release energy from glucose by combining it with oxygen.

Aerobic respiration involves chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release energy.

glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

Anaerobic Respiration

Anaerobic respiration involves chemical reactions in cells... Continue reading "Cellular Respiration: Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Processes" »

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