Fuel management mzfm take off mass

humans along with ol living organisms 4m a complex web of ecological system in which we r only a part & very much dependent on dis system 4 our own existence.4 example,d plants,animals & micro-organisms re-cre8 d quality of d air we breathe,d w8r we drink & d soil dat produces our food without which we cannot survive.4sts play a key role in d ecological system as these r also d primary producers on which ol other living beings depend.Biodiversity or biological diversity is immensely rich in wildlife & cultiv8d species,diverse in 4m & function but closely integr8d in a system thru multiple ne2rk of interdependencies.flora & fauna in india-  india is 1 of d world’s richest countries in terms of its vast array of biological diversity,& hs nearly 8 per cent of d 2tal # of species in d world (estim8d 2 b 1.6 million).Dis is possibly twice or thrice d # yet 2 b discovered.  these diverse flora & fauna r so well integr8d in our daily life dat we take these 4 granted.But,l8ly,dey r under gr8 stress mainly due 2 insensitivity 2 our environment.Over 81,000 species of fauna & 47,000 species of flora r found in dis country.Of d estim8d 47,000 plant species,  15,000 flowering species r endemic (indigenous) 2 india.@ least 10 per cent of india’s recorded wild flora & 20 per cent of its mammals r on d thre8ned list.Many of these would now b c8gorized as ‘critical’,(on d verge of extinction) like d cheetah,pink-headed duck,mountain quail,4st spotted owlet,& plants like madhuca insignis a species of grass.No 1 can say how many species may have already been lost.  79 species of mammals,44 of birds,15 of reptiles,& 3 of amphibians r thre8ned.1,500 plant species r considered endangered.Flowering plants & vertebr8 animals have recently become extinct @ a r8 estim8d 2 b 50 2 100 times d average expected natural r8.vanishing 4sts- de4st8on in india is staggering.D 4st & tree cover in d country is estim8d @ 78.92 million hectare,which is 24.01 per cent of d 2tal geographical area (dense 4st 12.24 per cent;open 4st 8.99 per cent;& mangrove 0.14 per cent).According 2 d st8 of 4st report (2013),d dense 4st cover hs increased by 10,098 sq km since 1997.However,dis apparent increase in d 4st cover is due 2 plant8on by different agencies.Based on d intern8onal union 4 conserv8on of nature & natural resources (iucn),we can classify as follows – normal species: species whose popul8on levels r considered 2 b normal 4 their survival, eg cattle,sal,pine,rodents.Endangered species: species which r in danger of extinction.D survival of such species is difficult if d neg8ve fac2rs dat have led 2 a decline in their popul8on c....Oper8.Eg black buck,crocodile,indian wild pig,indian rhino,lion tailed macaque,sangai  vulnerable species: these r species whose popul8on hs declined 2 levels frm where it is likely 2 move in2 d endangered c8gory in d near future if d neg8ve fac2rs c....Oper8.Eg blue sheep,asi8c elephant,gangetic dolphin.Rare species: species with small popul8on may move in2 d endangered or vulnerable c8gory if d neg8ve fac2rs affecting dem c....Oper8.Eg d himalayan brown bear,wild asi8c buffalo,desert fox & hornbill,endemic species: species which r only found in some particular areas usually isol8d by natural or geographical barriers.Eg d andaman teal,nicobar pigeon,andaman wild pig,mithun in arunchal pradesh.Extinct species: these r species which r nt found after searches of known or likely areas where dey may occur.A species may b extinct frm a local area,region,country,continent or d entire earth.Eg d asi8c cheetah,pink head duck.

d gre8st damage inflicted on indian 4sts was during d colonial period due 2 d expansion of d railways,agriculture,commercial & scientific 4stry & mining activities.Even after independence,agricultural expansion c.... B 1 of d major causes of depletion of 4st resources.Btwn 1951 & 1980,according 2 d 4st survey of india,over 26,200 sq.Km.Of 4st area was converted in2 agricultural land ol over india.Substantial parts of d tribal belts,especially in d northeastern & central india,have been de4sted or degraded by shifting cultiv8on (jhum),a type of ‘slash & burn’ agriculture large-scale development projects have also contributed  2 d loss of 4sts.Since 1951,over 5,000 sq km of 4st was cleared 4 river valley projects.Clearing of 4sts is still continuing with projects like d narmada sagar project in madhya pradesh,which would inund8 40,000 hectares of 4st.Mining is another  fac2r behind de4st8on.D buxa tiger reserve in west bengal is seriously thre8ned by d  dolomite mining.It hs disturbed d natural habitat of many species & blocked d migr8on route of several others,eg gr8 indian elephant.Many 4sters & environmentalists hold d view dat d gre8st degrading fac2rs behind d depletion of 4st resources R grazing & fuel-wood collection.D fact remains dat a substantial part of d fuel-fodder demand is met by lopping rather than by felling entire trees.D 4st ecosystems R reposi2ries of some of d country’s most valuable 4st products,minerals & other resources dat meet d demands of d rapidly expanding industrialurban economy.These protected areas,thus mean different things 2 different ppl,& therein lie conflicts.Teak monoculture hs damaged d natural 4st in south india & chir pine (pinus roxburghii) plant8ons in d himalayas have replaced d himalayan oak  & rhododendron 4sts. habitat destruction ,hunting ,poaching, over-exploit8on, environmental pollution, poisoning & 4st fires R fac2rs ,which have led 2 d decline in india’s biodiversity.Other important causes of environmental destruction R unequal access ,inequitable consumption of resources & differential sharing of responsibility 4 environmental well-being.Over-popul8on in 3rd world countries is often cited as d cause of environmental degrad8on.However,an average american consumes 40 times more resources than an average somalian.Similarly,d richest 5 per cent of indian society probably cause more ecological damage coz of d amount dey consume than d poorest 25 per cent.D 4mer shares minimum responsibilities 4 environmental well-being.

  The destruction of forests and wildlife is not just a biological issue. The biological loss is strongly correlated with the loss of cultural diversity. Such losses have  marginalised many indigenous and  forest-dependent communities, who  depend on  components of the forest and wildlife for food, medicine, culture, spirituality, etc. Within the poor, women are affected more than men. In many societies, women bear the responsibility of collection of fuel, fodder, water and other needs. As these resources are depleted, the drudgery of women increases and sometimes they have to walk for more than 10 km to collect these resources. This causes serious health problems for women and negligence of home and children because of the increased hours of work, which often has serious social implications. The impact of degradation such as drought or deforestation-induced floods also hits the poor the hardest. Poverty in these cases is a direct outcome of environmental destruction. Forest and wildlife, are vital to the quality of life and environment in the subcontinent. It is imperative to adapt to sound forest and wildlife conservation strategies. Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India- Conservation in the rapid decline in wildlife population and forestry has become essential.  Conservation preserves the ecological diversity and our life support systems – water, air and soil. It also preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals for better growth of species and breeding. Eg- in agriculture, we are still dependent on traditional crop varieties. Fisheries too are heavily dependent on the maintenance of aquatic biodiversity. In the 1960s and 1970s, conservationists demanded a national wildlife protection programme. The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act was enforced in 1972, with provisions for protecting habitats. An all-India list of protected species was also published. The thrust of the programme was towards protecting the remaining population of certain endangered species by banning hunting, giving legal protection to their habitats, and restricting trade in wildlife. Subsequently, central and many state governments established national parks and wildlife sanctuaries about which you have already studied. The government announced  projects for protecting specific animals, which were threatened,  the tiger, the onehorned rhino, the Kashmir stag, three types of crocodiles – fresh water crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the Gharial, the Asiatic lion, and others.,the Indian elephant, black buck, the great Indian bustard and the snow leopard, etc. Have been given legal protection against hunting and trade throughout India.

 Project Tiger-Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in the faunal w-eb. In 1973, the authorities realised that the tiger population had reduced to 1,827 from 55,000 at the turn of the century. The threats to tiger population are numerous,poaching for trade, shrinking habitat, depletion of prey base species, growing human population, etc. The trade of tiger skins and the use of their bones in traditional medicines, especially in the Asian countries left the tiger population on the verge of extinction. Since India and Nepal provide habitat to about two-thirds of the surviving tiger population in the world, these two nations became prime targets for poaching and illegal trading.Project Tiger,the wellpublicised wildlife campaign, was launched in 1973. Initially, it showed success as the tiger population went up to 4,002 in 1985 and 4,334 in 1989. But in 1993, the population of the tiger had dropped to 3,600. There were 39 tiger reserves in India covering an area of 32137. Sq km.Tiger conservation has been viewed not only as an effort to save an endangered species, but with equal importance as a means of preserving biotypes of sizeable magnitude. Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand, Sunderbans National Park in West Bengal, Bandhavgarh National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Sariska Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan, Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam and Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala are some of the tiger reserves of India. The conservation projects are now focusing on biodiversity rather than on a few of its components. There is now a more intensive search for different conservation measures. Increasingly, even insects are beginning to find a place in conservation planning. In the notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986, several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles, and one dragonfly have been added to the list of protected species. In 1991, for the first time plants were also added to the list, starting with six species. Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources Even if we want to conserve our vast forest and wildlife resources, it is rather difficult to manage, control and regulate them. In India, much of its forest and wildlife resources are either owned or managed by the government through the Forest Department or other government departments. These are classified under the following categories. (i) Reserved Forests: More than half of the total forest land has been declared reserved forests. Reserved forests are regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife resources are concerned. (ii) Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the total forest area is protected forest, as declared by the Forest Department. This forest land are protected from any further depletion. (iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other forests and wastelands belonging to both government and private individuals and communities.

  Reserved and protected forests are also known as permanent forest estates maintained for the purpose of producing timber and other forest produce, and for protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under permanent forests, constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area. Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Maharashtra have large percentages of reserved forests of its total forest area whereas Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan have a bulk of it under protected forests. All Northeastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage of their forests as unclassed forests managed by local communities . Community and Conservation Conservation strategies are not new in our country. We often ignore that in India, forests are also home to some of the traditional communities. In some areas of India, local communities are struggling to conser-ve these habitats along with government officials, recognising that only this will secure their own long-term livelihood. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, villagers have fought against mining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act. In many areas, villagers themselves are protecting habitats and explicitly rejecting government involvement. The inhabitants of five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared 1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their own set of rules and regulations which do not allow hunting, and are protecting the wildlife against any outside encroachments. Sacred groves - a wealth of diverse and rare species Nature worship is an age old tribal belief based on the premise that all creations of nature have to be protected. Such beliefs have preserved several virgin forests in pristine form called Sacred Groves (the forests of God and Goddesses). These patches of forest or parts of large forests have been left untouched by the local people and any interference with them is banned. Certain societies revere a particular tree which they have preserved from time immemorial. The Mundas and the Santhal of Chota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus cadamba) trees, and the tribals of Odisha and Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees during weddings. To many of us, peepal and banyan trees are considered sacred. Indian society comprises several cultures, each with its own set of traditional methods of conserving nature and its creations. Sacred qualities are often ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants and animals which are closely protected. You will find troops of macaques and langurs around many temples. They are fed daily and treated as a part of temple devotees.

In and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, herds of blackbuck, (chinkara), nilgai and peacocks can be seen as an integral part of the community and nobody harms them.

The Chipko movement in Himalaya has successfully resisted deforestation in several areas but has also shown that community afforestation with indigenous species can be successful. Attempts to revive the traditional conservation methods or developing new methods of ecological farming are widespread. Farmers and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown that adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of chemicals are possible and economically viable. In India joint forest management (JFM) programme shows  a good example for involving local communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests. The programme has been in existence since 1988 when Odisha passed the first resolution for joint forest management. JFM depends on the formation of local (village) institutions that undertake protection activities on degraded forest land managed by the forest department. In return, the members of these communities are entitled to intermediary benefits like non-timber forest produces and share in the timber harvested by successful protection. The  lesson from the dynamics of  environmental destruction and reconstruction in India is that local communities everywhere have to be involved in some kind of natural resource management. But there is still a long way before local communities are at the centre-stage in decision-making. Accept only those economic or developmental activities, that are people centric, environment-friendly and economically rewarding.