The Fall of the Spanish Empire and the 1898 Crisis

The End of Colonial Rule and Its Impact

Reasons for the Outbreak

The absence of a coherent colonial policy prevented Spain from fulfilling the commitments made during the signing of the Peace of Zanjón in 1878. For Cubans, this meant that emancipation was the only definitive solution. The global situation warranted a new colonial distribution that international law favored. Consequently, U.S. imperialism turned its attention to the Spanish territories in the Pacific and the Caribbean.

Colonial War in the Caribbean and Philippines

The war resumed in Cuba in February 1895 under the so-called Grito de Baire and the cry of "Viva Cuba Libre!" The insurrection was formed by independence fighters. General Martínez Campos' initial attitude eventually turned into a military tactic of crushing the insurrection. After he refused to take harsh actions against the civilian population, he requested to return to the peninsula. The government then sent General Valeriano Weyler, whose lines divided the territory with fortified sea barriers. This led to a long and harsh war, which eventually rushed North American intervention.

In Puerto Rico, a Creole autonomy movement was developing from discontent with poverty and illiteracy; however, demonstrations of loyalty to Spain were constant. The Philippine insurrection originated from indigenous discontent with the Spanish administration and religious orders, which held more power through material means than apostolic ones. Emilio Aguinaldo attempted to restart the conflict from his exile in Hong Kong, coinciding with the beginning of the Spanish-American War.

The Spanish-American War

The war started on April 25 and developed in two stages: the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean. Once the war was established, the Spanish fleet in the Philippines was annihilated in Manila Bay on May 1 by Admiral Dewey's squad. In the Atlantic, the American landing in Guantanamo on June 6 caused hard ground fighting with Spanish troops.

The Treaty of Paris

The Treaty of Paris was a dictate of U.S. demands that Spain had to abide by without the possibility of replication. Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and Filipinos were excluded from the negotiations. It was signed on December 10, 1898, and consisted of 17 final articles. While the European powers divided the world, Spain lost its possessions and remained marginalized. On January 1, 1899, General Jiménez handed over Cuba to the U.S. government.

Repercussions and the Crisis of '98

For Cuba, the end of the war meant "changing masters": the United States converted it into a protectorate under military occupation. This subordination was enhanced in 1903 by a commercial reciprocity treaty with the U.S. The year 1898 marked the beginning of an imperialist stage for the United States. In Spain, the Disaster of '98 opened a debate about the responsibilities of the war, political Regenerationism, and national revisionism. Moreover, through the press, these issues moved from the anonymous to the public, and writers made a fundamental contribution through the Generation of '98.