Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for University

Moon Phases and the Lunar Cycle

New Moon: The Moon's unilluminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon is not visible, except during a solar eclipse.

First Quarter: One-half of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is increasing.

Full Moon: The Moon's illuminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon appears to be completely illuminated by direct sunlight.

Last Quarter: One-half of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is decreasing.

The Lunar Month

A complete cycle (one lunar month) lasts approximately 28 days.

Solar and Lunar Eclipses

The Solar Eclipse

A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and... Continue reading "Lunar Phases, Eclipses, and Celestial Phenomena" »

Planetary Systems and the Solar System

A planetary system is a set of gravitationally bound non-stellar objects in orbit around a star. A planet is a non-stellar object in orbit around a star. The barycenter is the center of mass of two or more bodies orbiting each other.

The Eight Planets and Other Bodies

The solar system consists of eight planets, their moons, asteroids, comets, and other minor bodies. The eight planets are:

• Mercury
• Venus
• Earth
• Mars
• Jupiter
• Saturn
• Uranus
• Neptune

Only five of these planets are visible to the naked eye. Pluto is classified as a dwarf planet or planetoid.

The Solar System Structure

The Solar System is the gravitationally bound system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit it, either directly or indirectly. Of those... Continue reading "Solar System Mechanics and Planetary Classification" »

The Mechanics of Breathing

Inhalation: The first step is to take in the air. Once we have taken the air, it goes to our lungs, which expand, pushing the diaphragm down. In this movement, the diaphragm pushes the entrails and the belly.

Exhalation: We begin to expel the air, controlling this process with the abdominal muscles. The diaphragm goes up, pushing the lungs and forcing them to allow the air to exit.

Vocal Vibration and Amplification

Vibration: The air we have expelled goes through our trachea and arrives at the larynx, where there are two bodies called the vocal cords. These begin to vibrate, producing sound.

Amplification: The sound produced by the vocal cords would be very soft and barely audible if it were not amplified. This sound is... Continue reading "Mastering Vocal Mechanics and Music Theory Fundamentals" »

The Case of Henry Molaison (Patient H.M.)

Henry Molaison, most known as patient H.M. (1921–2008), suffered from severe seizures. In an attempt to cure his epilepsy, he underwent a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy, during which his hippocampus was removed. At the age of 27, following this major surgery, his seizures ended, but his ability to form new explicit memories was lost. While his epilepsy was controlled, he suffered from heavy anterograde amnesia. His working memory and implicit memory remained intact, but he could not add new events to his explicit memory. His old memories remained untouched, but from that day forward, he was forced to "live in the present."

His case is arguably the most influential in the study of memory and has... Continue reading "Psychology Fundamentals: Memory, Gender, and Perception" »

Auto or Self Antigens

Antigens present in one's own cells.

Altered by the action of bacteria, viruses, chemicals, or drugs as a non-self.

Auto antibody

Altered cell (Auto Ag) - elicits the production of Antibody.

Autoimmunity (misnomer, alternative = auto allergy)

Immune response of auto Ab against self Ag.

Humoral or cell-mediated immune response against the constituents of the body's own tissues.

There are more than 80 different kinds of diseases caused by autoimmunity.

Causes of Autoimmune Diseases

Sequestered or Hidden antigens

Ag in the secluded places - are not accessible to the immune system.

Neo antigens

Altered or Modified Antigens – by physical (irradiation), chemical (drugs), or microbial agents (intracellular viruses).

Cessation of Tolerance

It... Continue reading "Auto or Self Antigens: Causes and Effects of Autoimmunity" »

The Master of Renaissance Architecture

Andrea Palladio is considered one of the most influential architects of all time, especially in the realm of Renaissance architecture. He incorporated Vitruvian ideologies in his work and was heavily influenced by Greek and Roman architecture. His influence spread through his unique buildings and published writings. By combining traditional architectural styles with his own innovations, he created a distinct style that is conveyed through both his writings and buildings and is still referenced in modern architecture.

The Four Books of Architecture

Palladio's book, I quattro libri dell'architettura (The Four Books of Architecture), publicized his system of building to architects across Europe. He emphasized... Continue reading "The Enduring Legacy of Andrea Palladio's Architecture" »

Societal Issues in Global E-commerce

Understanding the pressures that global e-commerce places on contemporary society is critical to being successful in the e-commerce marketplace. The primary societal issues are intellectual property, individual privacy, and public policy.

Academic Disciplines Contributing to E-commerce

The study of e-commerce requires identifying and integrating knowledge from major academic disciplines. There are two primary approaches to e-commerce research: technical and behavioral. Each of these approaches is represented by several academic fields.

Technical Approaches to E-commerce

On the technical side, key contributing disciplines include:

• Computer Scientists: Interested in e-commerce as an application of Internet technology.

Transmedia Storytelling: Unfolding Across Multiple Platforms

Pros and Cons of Transmedia Storytelling

Shared Knowledge and Collaborative Processes

Verbs

A verb is one of the main parts of a sentence or question in English.

Linking Verbs

Linking verbs connect the subject of the verb to additional information about the subject. They do not express action. Examples include to be (is, being, are, was, were), to become, and to seem.

My cats are content to nap on the couch. After drinking the old milk, Vladimir turned green.

Action Verbs

Action verbs describe what the subject of the sentence is doing.

Sam and Eric ride the bus to school each morning. Jan wants a horse for her birthday. John reads a chapter in his book each night.

Transitive Verbs

Transitive verbs are action verbs that have an object receiving the action. I baked some cookies. I rode the bicycle. I moved the chair. I stitched a quilt.

Introduction

In this process, energy, in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is released and utilized by the cell for basic biological functions. This guide will delve into the intricacies of cellular respiration, exploring its different stages and the molecules involved.

Steps in Cellular Respiration

Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

Electrons are transferred from one molecule to another, playing a pivotal role in cellular respiration.

ATP Synthesis Methods

• Substrate-Level Phosphorylation: Depends on the interaction between enzymes.
• Oxidative Phosphorylation: Powered by the proton motive force and occurs through the use of ATP Synthase.

Glycolysis

Glycolysis produces 4 ATP molecules, all formed through the use of a substrate-enzyme complex.... Continue reading "Cellular Respiration: A Comprehensive Guide to Energy Production" »