Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for University

GATT: Characteristics

• Provisional: Born with the hope of ratifying the Havana Charter.
• Flexibility: The agreement has adapted to circumstances and trade problems at every moment.
• Pragmatism: A trade agreement where rules are interpreted with ease. Parties have reached negotiated solutions, avoiding the politicization of conflicts.
• Limits: A legal instrument agreed upon between sovereign States.

GATT: Principles

• Most-Favored-Nation (MFN): Every member must treat every other member as it treats its most-favored trading partner.
• Equal Treatment: Imports are given similar treatment in the domestic market as domestically produced goods. This principle prevents counteracting the benefits of the MFN principle.
• General and Progressive Reduction of Tariffs:

Topic 4: World Trade Organization (WTO)

Trade barriers are measures that governments or public authorities introduce to make imported goods or services less competitive than locally produced goods and services.

Effect of Trade Barriers

• Cause a limited choice of products and, therefore, would force customers to pay higher prices and accept inferior quality.
• Generally favor rich countries because these countries tend to set international trade policies and standards.
• Economists generally agree that trade barriers are detrimental and decrease overall economic efficiency, which can be explained by the theory of comparative advantage.

Legal and Illegal Trade Barriers

Illegal barriers: Violate international agreements and rules.

Legal barriers: Do not violate... Continue reading "World Trade Organization: Trade Barriers and Regulations" »

A New Nation

Understanding International Relations

International relations refers to interactions where the primary subjects are states, and the issues involved directly affect their national interests. Today, other significant social agents, such as multinational companies, also play a crucial role in international relations.

Key Characteristics of International Relations

• Diversification: International relations are implemented across a wide range of fields, promoting the establishment of institutions to address global problems.
• Globalization: This phenomenon impacts a larger number of states and other social agents, requiring them to confront global challenges and coordinate global interests worldwide.
• Institutionalization: International relations possess

The United States of America

The 48 contiguous states lie between Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. Alaska is the northern tip of North America, north and west of Canada. Hawaii is a group of islands about 2,400 miles (3,862 km) west of California in the Pacific Ocean. The country is formed by six main regions:

US Regions

• New England: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island.
• The Middle Atlantic: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland.
• The South: Runs from Virginia south to Florida and west as far as central Texas. This region also includes West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, and parts of Missouri

The 9/11 Commission: Findings and Impact

In late 2002, congressional legislation, signed into law by President George W. Bush, created the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, more commonly known as the 9/11 Commission. The independent, bipartisan commission was charged with preparing a complete report of the circumstances surrounding the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, including U.S. preparedness and immediate response, and with providing recommendations to guard against future attacks. The 9/11 Commission began its first hearings in New York City in the spring of 2003 and presented its findings in a public report released in July 2004.

Establishment of the 9/11 Commission

On November 27, 2002, U.S. President... Continue reading "The 9/11 Commission: Findings and Impact on US Security" »

Pope Benedict XV (1914–1922)

Historical Background

Benedict XV's pontificate was largely overshadowed by World War I, which he labeled “the suicide of civilized Europe,” along with its political, social, and humanitarian consequences. Having failed with diplomatic initiatives to end the war, Benedict XV focused on humanitarian efforts to lessen its impact, such as:

• Attending to prisoners of war
• Facilitating the exchange of wounded soldiers
• Organizing food deliveries to needy populations in Europe

One of his final concerns was the emerging persecution of the Catholic Church in Soviet Russia and the resulting famine after the revolution.

Main Encyclicals

During his seven-year pontificate, Benedict XV wrote twelve encyclicals. Key documents include:... Continue reading "Pope Benedict XV: World War I and Papal Diplomacy" »

Organization of the Council of the European Union

The Presidency

The Council is chaired by a Presidency that is held by each of the member states in turn for a period of six months. Thus, ministers, or the Head of Government or State, chair the Council meetings or summit for this six-month period.

The Troika and the High Representative

The term ‘Troika’ is used in conjunction with the Council to describe the situation in which, to provide continuity in policy, the current President and both the previous and succeeding Presidents act in conjunction, particularly in the pursuit of international relations.

The Lisbon Treaty provides that the Foreign Affairs Council is chaired by the High Representative.

COREPER: Committee of Permanent Representatives

COREPER... Continue reading "EU Council Organization: Presidency, COREPER, and Secretariat Roles" »

1. Membership and Election

The Parliament sees its role not only in promoting democratic decision-making in Europe but also in supporting the fight for democracy, freedom of speech, and fair elections across the globe.

Following a number of previous attempts made at the time of previous treaty amendments, the number of MEPs has finally settled at 750. MEPs are elected to serve the electorate in constituencies and are organized into cross-border political groupings, rather than member states, with the total number per state crudely in proportion to population. Further possible expansions will almost certainly cause the issue of membership to be reopened.

The President of the European Parliament

The actual President of the European Parliament is... Continue reading "European Parliament: Membership and Election Procedures" »

What is the Role of the European Council?

The European Council is composed of the Heads of Government of each member state of the European Union, the President of the European Commission, and the High Representative for Foreign Affairs & Security Policy.

The European Council is in charge of designating the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.

After the European Parliament elections, the European Council proposes a candidate for the post of President of the European Commission. When deciding on their nominee, the European Council considers the outcome of the European Parliament elections.

The choice of the candidate requires a qualified majority.

The European Council can also choose to end the High Representative'... Continue reading "European Council: Role, Organization, and Leadership" »