Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for University

Composition of Earth's Atmosphere

• Nitrogen (78%)
• Oxygen (20%)
• Argon (1%)

Greenhouse Gases

Examples: H2O, CO2, CH4, NO2, O3

Importance: Without greenhouse gases, Earth's temperature would be -22 to -36 degrees Celsius.

Greenhouse Effect

Solar energy absorbed by Earth and re-radiated as heat by greenhouse gases.

1. Natural Greenhouse Effect
2. Human-Induced Greenhouse Effect (Global Warming)

Global Warming / Climate Change

Caused by burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and human activities that increase carbon dioxide levels, leading to Earth's warming.

Ozone, Hole in Ozone, UV Rays, CFCs

Ozone

Located mostly in the lower stratosphere, it acts as a shield against harmful UV radiation from the sun.

Hole in the Ozone Layer

Causes: Primarily caused by human-made chemicals... Continue reading "Understanding Earth's Atmosphere and Climate Change" »

The Evolution of the Regulatory State in the EU

The role of government in the economy has significantly evolved. We can identify distinct phases:

1. Positive State: Initially, governments often owned and controlled key industries.
2. Liberalization: A shift occurred towards liberalization, with governments reducing direct control and allowing greater private sector involvement.
3. Growth of the Regulatory State: Industries became increasingly governed by private companies, but with regulations set and overseen by both private and public entities.

Factors Contributing to the Decline of the Positive State

• Privatization: Private companies gained control of industries previously managed by the state.
• Europeanization: The increasing influence of the European Union

1. Know the functions of the lymphatic system

· Produce, maintain, and distribute lymphocytes and other lymphoid cells that provide defense against infections and foreign substances PRIMARY FUNCTION. Return of excess fluid to bloodstream. Transport of lipids absorbed in digestive tract

2. Know the three subtypes of lymphocytes and what type of immunity each is responsible for

· T cells à Cell-mediated immunity (4+ subtypes)

• Cytotoxic T Cells (T_c) - direct cellular attack
• Helper T Cells (T_H) and Suppressor T Cells (T_S) - regulatory roles
• Memory T Cells.

B Cells à Antibody-mediated immunity

• Antibodies (immunoglobulins)
• Antigen - usually proteins (specific chemical targets)

· NK Cells à Immunological surveillance

3. Know where the three types of lymphocytes

The purpose of economy is production of conditions and services for consumption now or in the future.

Formalism in Language Description

Defining Formalism in Linguistics

Formalism in language description is a tendency to create formal descriptions of language, formalizing its units and levels, and explicitly presenting its general and abstract organization as a code or system.

Form vs. Function in Linguistic Analysis

• In a formalist approach, form is opposed to function, which is understood as the ultimate goal of units and levels of language, serving as an instrument of communication.
• The structuralist and generativist paradigms are both more formalist than functional.
• Pragmatics is more functionalist, as its paradigm is more interested in communication and usage.
• For Generative Grammar (GG), function does not constrain form. Its main focus is not

Syntax

In linguistics, syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given language, usually including word order. The term syntax is also used to refer to the study of such principles and processes.

Morphology

Morphology is the study and description of word formation (such as inflection, derivation, and compounding) in language.

Phonology

Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in spoken languages and signs in sign languages.

Semantics

Semantics is the linguistic and philosophical study of meaning in language, programming languages, formal logics, and semiotics. It is concerned with the relationship between signifiers and what they stand for in reality... Continue reading "Fundamental Concepts in Linguistics and Language Structure" »

Plato: Plato was an Athenian philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, founder of the Platonist school of thought, and the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world.

Gilgamesh: The best-known and most popular hero in the mythology of the ancient Near East, Gilgamesh was a Sumerian king who wished to become immortal. Endowed with superhuman strength, courage, and power, he appeared in numerous legends and myths, including the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Monotheism: Monotheism is the belief in a single all-powerful god, as opposed to religions that believe in multiple gods. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are widely practiced forms of monotheism. ... Monotheism is any religion that believes in one god. From... Continue reading "Key Figures and Concepts in History and Philosophy" »

Roman Expansion and Mediterranean Dominance

As Rome expanded through Italy, it granted its citizen-soldiers land, allowed defeated Latin-speakers to become full citizens, and welcomed defeated soldiers into its army. By 272 B.C.E., Rome had conquered the Italian peninsula. Victory in the Second Punic War gave Rome control of the Western Mediterranean. Rome's defeat of the Macedonians and the Greeks in 133 B.C.E. brought it control of the Eastern Mediterranean.

Rome's Longevity, Transformation, and Decline

Rome's empire persisted for so long because of its rulers’ willingness to adopt new structures, such as the Principate and Diocletian's Tetrarchy. Emperor Constantine strengthened the empire but weakened the city of Rome by establishing a new... Continue reading "The Roman Empire: Expansion, Governance, and Enduring Legacy" »

Understanding Benchmarking and Performance Measurement

Benchmarking is a systematic process of measuring the performance of a company’s products, services, or internal processes against those of another business considered to be the best in the industry (the "best practice"). The primary purpose of benchmarking is to identify internal opportunities for improvement and strategic enhancement.

Workplace Diversity: Types and Organizational Impact

Diversity encompasses various dimensions that affect organizational dynamics and market reach. Below are four key types of diversity and their potential impact on a company:

1. Religion: Religious diversity, or lack thereof, can significantly narrow a company's target audience because there are many people