Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for University

What Are Humans According to Bandura?

We will talk about this in the context of Zillmann's Mood Management theory, because it helps to understand what are the basic notions of Zillmann's theory. Zillmann was based on the premise that humans are hedonists, pleasure seekers. In Zillmann's and in the whole exposure research following him, the assumption was that people are hedonists. But if we look at the reasons why they do what they do, they should be more specific than saying they are looking for a pleasant state of mind. It would not be possible to explain people's use of media from which they suffer, if you assume that people are hedonists. With Bandura it is a different story. Bandura's model is a complex picture, a mix between environment,... Continue reading "Bandura's Model: Understanding Human Behavior and Observational Learning" »

Consumer Motivation in Tourism

Client motivation arises when consumers satisfy their needs and their perception of the attractions aligns. Motivation factors include:

• Religion
• Education
• Sightseeing
• Health
• Relaxation
• Sports
• Socialization
• Business

Factors that enable motivation include:

• Time
• Money
• Money Exchange
• Transportation
• Accommodation
• Health Standards
• Testimonials/Passport

Tour Operator Business Model: TUI Example

TUI has shifted its business model to improve its market target, primarily due to diversification. They have invested in their own product offerings, enabling them to create unique holidays for their customers. This is a key differentiation factor from their competitors. A TUI customer could be inspired by TUI, book with TUI, and then experience... Continue reading "Tourism Market: Consumer Motivation & Impacts" »

Selective Exposure

Dolf Zillmann provides a theoretical explanation of how people interact with the media. Persuasion in media has the power to convince people. Media has the power to change behavior, attitude, thinking, and emotions.

He wonders why entertainment is not being studied as an agent of mass media.

He points out two different areas: effects research/media effects, and audience research.

Theories are made on assumptions. Assumptions in social science disciplines are never tested. Soul, feelings, intelligence are nothing you can observe. Behaviorists study human behaviors. Around 1970, they understood that they should study not what media does to humans, but what humans do to media.

Communications is a result of sociology plus psychology.... Continue reading "Selective Exposure and Mood Management in Media" »

Foundational US Political Concepts

Limited Government

The principle that government power is restricted, positing that certain things are out of the government's boundaries because of citizens' natural rights.

Colonial Charters

Documents granted to American colonies by English kings establishing governments; they fostered the American tradition of written constitutions.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, drafted by James Madison, which place limitations on government and protect natural rights. Most state constitutions have a version of this.

Commonwealth

Although four states call themselves commonwealths (Pennsylvania, Virginia, Massachusetts, and Kentucky), the term refers to any self-governing community and currently

Theme 5: Virginia Woolf

A very simple definition of feminism would emphasize that it's about having women’s voices heard, their ideas taken seriously, and having their demands for equality and basic rights incorporated into everyday “democratic” life.

Her Story: A Feminist Perspective

The early history of feminism can be seen in the existence of a cliché word which helps to express this, known as the problem of her story. It may be something of an overused term, but it’s a useful starting point. History needed, needs, and will need to be balanced by her story.

Lana Rakow has distinguished between four feminist approaches to popular culture:

1. The recovery and reappraisal approach
2. The images and representations approach
3. The reception and experience

Theme 6: Fan Culture

Fan is an abbreviated form of the word 'fanatic'. In its more literal sense it means 'belonging to the temple, a temple servant, and a devotee', but it quickly assumed more negative connotations, 'of person inspired by orgiastic rites and enthusiastic frenzy'.

The 'trekkies' were depicted as nerdy guys with glasses and rubber Vulcon ears. They are brainless consumers who will buy anything associated with the program or its cast. They devote their lives to the cultivation of worthless knowledge and they are described as misfits, desexualized, immature, and unable to separate fantasy from reality. 'Star Trek' is written on the assumption that speaking as a fan is a defensible position within the debates surrounding mass culture.... Continue reading "Exploring Fan Culture: From Fanatics to Active Producers" »

Mistakes in Procedendo and In Iudicando

In procedendo (mistakes committed before the judgement): when upholding an appeal, the Court finds a mistake before the First Instance judgement. The judgement upholding the appeal will order the case to be referred back to the Court of First Instance at the point where the mistake/procedural infringement occurred.

In iudicando (mistakes done when adjudicating): if the Court finds that the mistake was committed at the First Instance, it will rule on the matter of the case for a second time and substitute the judgement given by the First Instance Court.

The Court shall rule on the merits of the case.

Judgements Subject to Appeal in Cassation

There are strict limitations on what proceedings can be subject to... Continue reading "Procedural and Judgment Errors & Cassation Appeals" »

Free and Legal Evaluation of Evidence

Free and legal evaluation is the mental activity by which the Judge decides which fact is true or false. The Judge shall interpret and then evaluate.

• Interpretation: To comprehend the meaning of evidentiary results. You can’t assess anything if you don’t understand the meaning of an evidentiary result; you need to understand in order to evaluate.
• Evaluation: Assuming the Judge has understood the objective meaning, to which rules should the Judge adhere, to decide if a fact is true or false?

The general rule is the free evaluation of the evidence; the Judge is free to choose the rule of logic.

Free evaluation is a system in which the Judge is left to choose among the rules of human criteria and reason. The... Continue reading "Understanding Evidence Evaluation in Legal Proceedings" »

Judicial Presumptions: Conclusive and Rebuttable

A judicial presumption is a logical inference made by a judge where, once a fact has been established, it is very likely that another fact is true. This is a type of circumstantial evidence, representing the mental activity of inferring the truth of one fact based on another.

It comprises three essential elements: an ascertained fact, a logical link, and a presumed fact. Courts are expected to apply presumptions during the evaluation of evidence.

Presumptions can be categorized into two main types:

• Legal Presumptions: Established directly in the text of the law, these may be either conclusive or rebuttable.
• Judicial Presumptions: Created ad hoc by the court in consideration of the specific circumstances

Counterclaims in Legal Proceedings

Counterclaim: A claim asserted by the defendant against the plaintiff, serving as both a defense and a counter-attack. It involves the defendant's pleadings against the claimant, within their competence.

Requirements for a Counterclaim

• Connection between the defendant's pleadings and the plaintiff's initial claims.
• The Court must have jurisdiction over the subject matter and the counterclaim.
• The counterclaim is filed against the initial plaintiff.

Consequences of a Counterclaim

It is another claim within the same proceeding, discussed and judged alongside the original claim. The counterclaim defendant (original plaintiff) has the right to defend themselves.

Counterclaim Defenses

Types of allegations between the counterclaim... Continue reading "Counterclaims and Default Declarations in Legal Proceedings" »