Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for University

L1 Transfer in Second Language Acquisition

L1 Transfer refers to the influence that a learner’s first language (L1) exerts over the acquisition of a second language (L2). This includes positive transfer, negative transfer, overuse, and avoidance.

Theoretical Accounts of L1 Transfer

• Behaviourism: Errors were viewed as the result of interference. The habits of the L1 were supposed to prevent the learner from learning the habits of the L2.
• Contrastive Analysis (CA): Comparisons of the two languages were carried out using CA to predict difficulties.
• Mentalist Accounts: These suggest that only a few errors are the result of L1 transfer.
• Cognitive Accounts: Transfer is viewed as a cognitive process, with the L1 acting as a kind of input from the inside.

Linguistics and Applied Linguistics: A Complex Relationship

One approach to practical and professional language issues involves connecting them to linguistic principles. Linguistics seeks general patterns in language.

Generative Linguistics and Idealization

Generative linguistics, introduced by Noam Chomsky, emphasizes the representation of language in the mind (competence) over actual language use in everyday life (performance).

Sociolinguistics, Functional Linguistics, and Corpus Linguistics

Sociolinguistics focuses on the relationship between language and society. Functional linguistics examines language as a communication tool. Corpus linguistics has become increasingly important in investigating language use.

Prescribing vs. Describing Language:

Applied Linguistics

The need for applied linguistics.

We should set out to investigate and understand the facts of language use, to organize and formalize what we know, and to subject our knowledge to rational consideration and critical analysis. This is the aim of applied linguistics, the academic discipline concerned with the relation of knowledge about language to decision making in the real world.

Examples and procedures.

Applied linguistics sets out to investigate problems in the world in which language is implicated. It is these processes of study, reflection, investigation, and action which constitute applied linguistics as an academic discipline.

The scope of applied linguistics.

There is clearly a large and disparate activities to which... Continue reading "Understanding the Scope of Applied Linguistics in Language Education and Communication" »

Essential Qualities of Effective Teachers

Effective teaching requires a combination of knowledge, abilities, and attitudes. The following table outlines key aspects in each of these areas:

General Objective

At the end of the... Continue reading "Essential Skills & Objectives for Effective Teaching" »

Does the lesson provide for adequate assistance for students who do not learn from the initial procedure?

If only everyone "got it" right the first time! The reality is that almost no lesson is 100% reliable. That means some students will fall behind. They "won't get it," and you need to think about what to do about that. The problem is compounded because you are confronted with the real problem of what to do with the students who did "get it" while you are attending to those who didn't. Usual pedagogical thinking suggests that the "got it" students can be given some ancillary work, or some enrichment materials while you work with the students who need your help

Does the lesson provide adequate practice to permit consolidation and integration

1. Fungi obtain nutrients through absorption.
2. The body of most fungi consists of threadlike hyphae, which form a network called a mycelium.
3. Some fungal species live in plants and can kill herbivores that feed on the plant. What type of relationship does this fungus have with its host? Mutualistic
4. What sexual processes in fungi generate genetic variation? Karyogamy and meiosis
5. Almost all of the members of this phylum form arbuscular mycorrhizae in a mutualistic partnership with plants. Glomeromycota
6. From the human perspective, which of the following kinds of fungi would be considered the least useful or beneficial? Rusts
7. Which of the following best describes the physical relationship of the partners involved in lichens? Photosynthetic cells are

Finland's Unique Sporting Competitions

In the past decade or so, Finland has become host to a number of unusual sporting competitions. In many of these events, the winner – or winners – are crowned as world champions. Common to most of these pursuits are their origins in Finnish folk heritage. While intelligence or social skills are not required for success, power, stamina, and courage are vital.

What, then, are these strange sports? Here are a few of the most popular ones:

Wife Carrying World Championships

The Wife Carrying World Championships have been held in the small town of Sonkajärvi, Central Finland, since 1992. The winners are the couple who complete the course in the shortest time. To make it more difficult, two dry and two-meter-... Continue reading "Finland's Wacky World Championships: Unique Sports & Fun" »

Metastasizing Crisis - Occurs When a Small, Isolated Incident is Not Contained and Begins to Spread

Definitions of Crisis -

• A crisis arises from a traumatic event that is unpredictable and uncontrollable.
• Crisis is a crisis because the individual knows no response to deal with a situation.
• Crisis is a personal difficulty or situation that immobilizes people and prevents them from consciously controlling their lives.
• Crisis is a state of disorganization in which people face frustration of important life goals or profound disruption of their life cycles and methods of coping with stressors. The term crisis usually refers to a person’s feelings of fear, shock, and distress about the disruption, not to the disruption itself.
• Crisis is a temporary breakdown

Beowulf: An Old English Epic Poem

Origins and Manuscript

Beowulf, the oldest surviving English epic poem, dates back to the first half of the eighth century. The sole surviving manuscript, from the late tenth century, originated in the West Saxon kingdom. Damage from a 1731 fire resulted in the loss of some text. While the poem is English, it focuses on the Germanic forebears of the English, specifically the Danes and Geats of Zealand and southern Sweden. The historical setting predates the poem by roughly two centuries, falling between the initial Germanic invasion of England in 449 and the completion of the Anglo-Saxon migration. The audience may have identified as Geats, like Beowulf himself. The poem references Hygelac's raid on the Franks... Continue reading "Beowulf: An Old English Epic Poem Analysis" »

Language Teaching Methods

The Classical Method

The Classical Method taught Latin and Greek through grammar, using authors like Donatus and Priscian. Education focused on classical languages, reading classical texts, and translating them into vernacular languages after the invention of the printing press in the 18th century. It employed a deductive methodology, aiming to improve literary skills and knowledge of the language.

Grammar-Translation Method

Originating in Prussia in the late 18th century, forerunners included Fick's English manual for Germans and the works of Ahn and Ollendorff. This method focused on teaching grammar and practicing translation of unconnected sentences using a deductive approach. The selection of phrases lacked logic,... Continue reading "A Comparison of Language Teaching Methodologies" »