Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for University

Mindsets and Learning Theories

Understanding Mindsets

• Fixed Mindset: Individuals believe their intelligence is static, "carved in stone," leading them to question their inherent capability.
• Growth Mindset: Individuals believe their knowledge and abilities are always expanding and growing through continuous learning.

Learning Styles and Limitations

Scientific studies indicate that individuals with different learning styles may perform better when material is presented in a specific way. However, if learning styles limit learning, it is often because individuals believe they are incapable of learning through other methods.

Sleep and Memory Consolidation

Relationship between Sleep and Learning: Sleep helps compile information into more memorable material.... Continue reading "Core Concepts in Psychology and Research Methods" »

Which of the following statements about the relationship between interest rates and bond prices is true?

1. There is an inverse relationship between bond prices and interest rates.
2. There is a direct relationship between bond prices and interest rates.
3. The price of short-term bonds fluctuates more than the price of long-term bonds for a given change in interest rates. (Assuming that coupon rate is the same for both)
4. The price of long-term bonds fluctuates more than the price of short-term bonds for a given change in interest rates. (Assuming that the coupon rate is the same for both)

Answer: I and IV only

Bond Duration

Consider a bond with a face value of $1,000, a coupon rate of 8%, a yield to maturity of 9%, and ten years to maturity. This bond's duration... Continue reading "Relationship between Interest Rates and Bond Prices" »

Policy as Institutional Output

• Governments bestow legitimacy, universality, and mandatory policies.
• The characteristics of government organizations and institutions influence the types of public policies embraced by officials.
• Certain issues, problems, and interest groups have more weight than others in government.

Process Model

• It conceives the political process as a series of political activities: identification of the problem, establishment of the agenda, formulation, legitimation, implementation, and evaluation.

Group Theory Model

• Policies are the efforts of groups to influence and modify public policies.

Theory of the Elite

• Public policy reflects the interests and values of the elite rather than the demands of the people.
• Change in public policy

1- Intermediaries: Buy products from manufacturers and resell them to consumers.

1. The role of business statistics is to convert data into meaningful info.

How to Teach the Four Skills: Reading, Speaking, Writing, and Listening

a) How to Teach ReadingActually there are three stages in teaching reading:

• Pre-reading: In this stage, the teacher starts by contextualizing the topic of the reading process by using proverbs, quotes, pictures, videos, or short discussions, etc. Then, move to explain vocabulary items that students may encounter in the text. After that, he asks for their predictions about the topic of the text they are going to read.
• While-reading: Teacher gives the text to students and asks them to read it silently and check their predictions (this process called skimming). Then the teacher asks them to read again to answer the comprehension questions (this process called scanning).
• Post-reading:

Muscle spindles stimulate stretch, while Golgi tendon organs stimulate muscle contraction. Cerebellar tremor is characterized by low frequency. Motor pathways begin in the cerebral cortex and brainstem. Lower spinal cord motoneurons innervate skeletal muscles, including extrafusal and intrafusal fibers. Stimulation of muscle spindles or Golgi tendon organs is accomplished through the reticulospinal tract.

Muscle Tone and Movement Disorders

• Hypotonia: Decreased muscle tone
• Dyskinesia: Atypical, unconscious muscle movement
• Hypertonia: Increased muscle tone
• Spasticity: Hyper-contraction of muscles
• Akinesia: Atypical unconscious posture

Cortical Control of Movement

Layer V contains pyramidal neurons. The primary motor cortex contains smaller and fewer... Continue reading "Motor Control: Pathways, Neurons, and Muscle Function" »

Data Manipulation with dplyr

Ordering Rows with arrange()

Selecting Columns with select()

Creating New Variables with mutate()

Creating Functions with Vector Arguments

Linguistics and Applied Linguistics: A Complex Relationship

One approach to practical and professional language issues involves connecting them to linguistic principles. Linguistics seeks general patterns in language.

Generative Linguistics and Idealization

Generative linguistics, introduced by Noam Chomsky, emphasizes the representation of language in the mind (competence) over actual language use in everyday life (performance).

Sociolinguistics, Functional Linguistics, and Corpus Linguistics

Sociolinguistics focuses on the relationship between language and society. Functional linguistics examines language as a communication tool. Corpus linguistics has become increasingly important in investigating language use.

Prescribing vs. Describing Language:

Applied Linguistics

The need for applied linguistics.

We should set out to investigate and understand the facts of language use, to organize and formalize what we know, and to subject our knowledge to rational consideration and critical analysis. This is the aim of applied linguistics, the academic discipline concerned with the relation of knowledge about language to decision making in the real world.

Examples and procedures.

Applied linguistics sets out to investigate problems in the world in which language is implicated. It is these processes of study, reflection, investigation, and action which constitute applied linguistics as an academic discipline.

The scope of applied linguistics.

There is clearly a large and disparate activities to which... Continue reading "Understanding the Scope of Applied Linguistics in Language Education and Communication" »