Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Technology

Electrical Resistivity of Materials

Materials are classified as conductors, semiconductors, and insulators depending on their resistivities, in an increasing order of their values.

• Conductors (e.g., Metals): Have low resistivities, typically in the range of 10^–8 Ωm to 10^–6 Ωm.
• Insulators (e.g., Ceramic, Rubber, Plastics): Have resistivities 10¹⁸ times greater than metals or more.
• Semiconductors: Fall in between conductors and insulators. Their resistivities characteristically decrease with a rise in temperature. The presence of small amounts of impurities also affects their resistivities. This last feature is exploited in the use of semiconductors for electronic devices.

Kirchhoff's Rules for Electric Circuit Analysis

Electric circuits generally... Continue reading "Electrical Properties of Materials and Circuit Analysis" »

Timber as a Construction Material

1. Types of Construction Timber

Hardwoods (e.g., Mvuli, Meru Oak, Mahogany, Eucalyptus)

• Difficult to work because of hardness; may require pre-drilled holes for jointing with nails.
• Useful for severe environmental exposure conditions, offering better resistance to wear, insect, and fungal attack than softwoods.
• Valued for aesthetic appeal.

Softwoods (e.g., Cedar, Podo, Pine, Cypress, Grevillea Robusta)

• Some types are commonly available in stockyards and are generally cheaper than hardwoods.
• Preferred in construction because they are easier to work and joint with nails.
• Have straighter grains than hardwoods.
• More liable to insect and fungal attack than hardwoods and require intensive preservation treatment.

Available Sizes:

What is Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE)?

CAE formalizes ideas through computer modeling and then fabricates the models into real-world objects through CAD and CAM.

What is Computer-Aided Reverse Engineering (CARE)?

CARE works in the opposite direction. CARE creates a computer model of an object through measurements of the object as it exists in the real world. CARE is the reversal of CAE.

What is a Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)?

• Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs) are a practical means for characterizing and inspecting free-form surfaces.
• Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs) first appeared in the early 1960s.
• A CMM consists of a probe supported on three mutually perpendicular (x, y, and z) axes, and each axis has a built-in reference standard.

Traffic Light with Arduino

This code simulates a traffic light using an Arduino.

int led_rojo = 3;
int led_verde = 4;
int led_amarillo = 5;

void setup() {
  pinMode(led_rojo, OUTPUT);  // PIN 3 as output
  pinMode(led_verde, OUTPUT); // PIN 4 as output
  pinMode(led_amarillo, OUTPUT); // PIN 5 as output
}

void loop() {
  digitalWrite(led_verde, HIGH); // Turn on green LED
  delay(2000);
  digitalWrite(led_verde, LOW);  // Turn off green LED
  delay(500);
  digitalWrite(led_amarillo, HIGH); // Turn on yellow LED
  delay(2000);
  digitalWrite(led_amarillo, LOW);  // Turn off yellow LED
  delay(500);
  digitalWrite(led_rojo, HIGH);   // Turn on red LED
  delay(2000);
  digitalWrite(led_rojo, LOW);    // Turn off red LED
  delay(500);
}

Button

Malware

Malicious software, is a type of software that has been particularly designed to gain access to or damage a computer, mostly without the knowledge of the owner. There are a lot of types of malware, including computer worm, computer viruses, Trojan horse, adware and spyware.

Computer Crime

Defined as a crime in which a computer is the object of the crime (hacking, phishing, spamming) or is used as a tool to commit an offense (child pornography, hate crimes). Cybercriminals may use computer technology to access personal information, business secrets or use the internet for malicious purposes.

Trojan Horse

A type of malware that is often disguised as legitimate software. Trojans can be employed by cyber-thieves and hackers that offer useful... Continue reading "Understanding Malware and Cybercrime: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Brakes

Disc Brakes

A disc is connected to an axle. Brake pads apply pressure to the disc via friction.

Band Brakes

A drum is connected to an axle. A flexible band applies pressure to the outside of the drum.

Drum Brakes

A drum is connected to the axle. A pair of brake shoes apply pressure to the inside of the drum via friction.

Energy Absorption and Dissipation

Springs

Springs are devices that, thanks to the elasticity of their materials and their shape, can absorb energy when force is applied. This energy can then be dissipated in a controlled way. Depending on the type of external force applied, springs work in different ways:

• Compression: Pushing on the spring makes it shorter (e.g., a sofa).
• Traction: Pulling on the spring makes it longer (e.g., a

Fundamentals of Computer Networking

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a set of interconnected devices (computers, servers, peripherals) designed to share resources and exchange information efficiently.

Network Classification by Size (Scope)

Networks are classified based on their geographical scope:

• LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small, localized area, such as a home, office, or school campus.
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Spans a city or large campus.
• WAN (Wide Area Network): Extends over a large geographical distance, often connecting multiple LANs (e.g., the Internet).

Network Classification by Property

Networks can be categorized based on access rights and ownership:

• Public Networks: Networks where access is available to the

Material Classification

Natural Materials

These materials are obtained directly from nature, such as:

• Wood
• Coal
• Metal
• Stone

Artificial Materials

These materials are derived from natural materials through processing, such as:

• Glass
• Paper
• Cement

Synthetic Materials

These materials are created through chemical reactions involving artificial materials, such as:

• Plastics

Material Types and Their Properties

Ceramics

Ceramics exhibit the following properties:

• Fragility
• Low thermal conductivity
• Low electrical conductivity
• Hardness
• Brittleness

Metallic Materials

Metals possess these characteristics:

• High electrical and thermal conductivity
• Resistance
• Ductility
• Malleability
• Ability to form alloys with other elements to enhance properties

Plastics/Polyesters

Plastics and polyesters... Continue reading "Understanding Materials: Properties, Types, and Treatments" »

Fundamentals of Structural Engineering

A structure is the set of elements in a body designed to resist the forces (loads) acting upon it, fulfilling three essential conditions:

1. Stability: Remaining upright and preventing overturning.
2. Resistance: Withstanding loads without breaking.
3. Rigidity: Minimizing deformation under load.

Understanding Loads

The forces acting on a structure are known as loads. These loads are typically classified as either permanent (dead loads) or variable (live loads).

Classification of Structures

Structures are generally categorized into four main types:

• Massive Structures: Characterized by their large volume and weight (e.g., pyramids, stone benches).
• Vaulted Structures: Utilize arches and vaults to distribute forces (e.g., stone