Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Organizational Structure: Core Concepts

Organizational structure is a concept understood from two distinct perspectives. First, it refers to the verbalization of the concept itself, viewing the structure as a living component of an organization—a conscious and deliberate action by individuals to shape an institution.

Second, it represents a branch of knowledge housed within the management discipline. This field studies how an organization creates and establishes its organizational units, the forms of interaction between hierarchical levels, and how authority and responsibility are concentrated or decentralized.

The Role of Departmentalization

There is no single, unambiguous way to determine how an organization's structure should be arranged.... Continue reading "Organizational Structure: Principles and Departmentalization" »

The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)

Queen Isabella II calls Espartero to restore the Constitution of 1837. She announces cuts and postpones general workers' demands for freedom of association. Espartero conducts the dissolution of boards. His resignation signifies a revolutionary break with the Democrats. The regime established during the biennium seeks constitutional change, remaining a project whose fundamental characteristics are progressive.

The Work of the Biennium

Bases for the constitution were created. The Constitution of 1856 featured national sovereignty, an elected senate with the same privileges as Congress, and a permanent deputation of the courts. It included broad rights, such as religious freedom, which caused a new Carlist uprising.... Continue reading "Spain's Progressive Biennium (1854-1856): Reforms and Political Shifts" »

Communication was essential. This led to the growth of the metallurgical industry, particularly around Maquinista Barcelona. During the last quarter of the 19th century, many factories were located near rivers to utilize hydropower, explaining the proliferation of industrial settlements in these areas.

Rising prices, caused by a lack of energy sources, made Catalan textile products uncompetitive. Catalan industrialists requested protectionist tariffs from the central government to monopolize the Spanish and colonial markets.

The Evolution of the Labor Movement

Labor organizations were divided between anarchists and Marxists. During the first seven years of the Restoration under Cánovas, labor organizations operated underground.

The Restoration... Continue reading "Labor Movements and Social Change in 19th Century Spain" »

The system was falsely democratic under the Canovist system, even after the introduction of universal suffrage in 1890. Furthermore, in the case of Extremadura, a predominantly rural zone, the cacique system and oligarchy reached their highest levels of efficiency.

Early Challenges: Republicanism

However, in its early years, the Canovist model had to deal with the lingering influence of some sectors of republicanism, which sought to subvert the state structure through uprisings. This was the case with the failed republican military uprising in Bangkok in 1883. Once these events, which had so little real impact, occurred, the system continued its political maturation.

Universal Suffrage and its Limited Impact

In 1890, as shown by the degree of consolidation,... Continue reading "Caciquismo and Oligarchy in Restoration Extremadura" »

The Linguistic Legacy

• According to the linguist Tom McArthur, “Old English and present-day English are as different from one another as Classical Latin and present-day French.”
• Basic tools of English—this, the, that, I, me, him, it—are of Anglo-Saxon origin.
• About 90% of the commonest words in English are of Anglo-Saxon origin.

What Were the Anglo-Saxons Like?

Insights from the 7th-century burial site at Sutton Hoo in Suffolk:

• Drinking vessels (glass and horn)
• Byzantine silver
• French coins in a purse
• Sword, shield, helmet: indicating high-status warriors.

The Laws of Aethelberht of Kent (7th Century AD)

Why are These Laws Important?

• What language did Aethelberht’s scribes choose? Why is this surprising?
• The Laws of Aethelberht are a compilation,

Doctrinal Principles of the Spanish Restoration

The political system of the Restoration was designed and implemented by Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, often said to be with the help of Práxedes Mateo Sagasta. Cánovas, a liberal historian and politician, was formed in the ranks of the Liberal Union and possessed a deep knowledge of Spanish history, which illuminated his vision for the nation.

Key Doctrinal Principles of the Restoration Scheme:

1. Overcoming Instability and Achieving Pacification

   The Restoration was not just about restoring the legitimate Bourbon dynasty; it also aimed to overcome the political instability of the previous period and achieve social and political pacification of the country.

2. Synthesis of Old and New: The "Internal Constitution"

Understanding Key Political and Economic Ideologies

Darwinism: Evolution by Natural Selection

Darwinism refers to a set of ideas described by Charles Darwin in On the Origin of Species (1859), based on the theory of evolution by natural selection. While evolutionary theories existed before, Darwin's concept of natural selection was entirely new at the time. Another key point of Darwinism is the "tree of life," the idea that different species of living organisms descended from common ancestors.

Evolutionism: Species Adaptation Over Time

Evolutionism is a school of thought based on the premise that species change and adapt to their environment over time. It has roots in antiquity, drawing from the ideas of the Greeks, Romans, Chinese, and Muslims.... Continue reading "Foundational Political and Economic Theories" »

Demography can be defined as the science that observes, describes, and analyzes the population of a territory. The study of population can be dynamic, referring to its evolution over time, mobility, and distribution in space, or static, analyzing the structure of the population at a specific time.

The goal of demography is to understand the problems linked to population growth and to establish and develop models for future predictions. Currently, local, regional, and state governments need reliable data on the population to organize and plan economic and social activities efficiently. Worldwide, the concern is to implement demographic policies to correct the effects of population explosion in the third world, where the imbalance between population... Continue reading "Understanding Population Dynamics: A Demographic Analysis" »

General Methodological Procedures

Analysis

The decomposition of a whole into its parts.

Summary

A composition or reduction of the whole from its parts. A physical or mental return to the compound from its elements.

Introduction: Special Cases to Generalizations

• Complete: Takes into account all particular things.
• Incomplete: Not all cases are considered.

Deduction

From a general statement, we arrive at the explanation of a particular case.

Reduction

A conditional, from least known to most known (if A, then B. Thus, if B, then A).

Explanation

Used in natural sciences. Aims to establish a link between two things by establishing a cause-and-effect relationship. It aims to link events and fix them into law.

Comprehension

A method related to human relationships,... Continue reading "Methodological Procedures and Scientific Progress" »

Management Theories and Principles

Key Figures in Management

Taylor: American industrial engineer who applied the scientific method to human work, aiming to achieve cooperation between workers and management. He advocated for a clear division between management and workers and providing a stipend.

Fayol: French engineer and economist known for principles such as division of labor, authority and responsibility, discipline, unity of command and direction, and subordination of particular interest to the general team spirit.

Core Management Functions

Planning

The objective is to decide what to achieve, including actions and responsibilities. Key steps include:

1. Determine the mission and the main objectives.
2. Develop the strategy.
3. Implement the plan.

Strategic