Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Marx and Engels have classified societies based on different modes of production. They never established a definitive classification, and throughout all their works, there are various proposals. The best known is the following:

1) Tribal Community

Tribal community: It is the oldest mode of production. It was formed by the meeting of several families. Initially, it was nomadic and later became agricultural. With little division of labor and low productivity, they practiced primitive communal societies, and social classes were not found.

2) Asiatic Society

Asiatic society: This is a continuation of the previous mode. It is a rural society in which there is still private property. The property is in the hands of the despot or the council of heads... Continue reading "Understanding Marx and Engels' Classification of Societies" »

The Birth of Sociology as a Science

Intellectual Context for Sociology's Emergence

Between 1750 and 1850, a scientific study of society emerged, adapting methodologies from the natural sciences. Isaac Newton's foundational work in science inspired the belief that similar rigorous methodologies could be applied to understand social phenomena. A key element was the adoption of the scientific method.

Events like the American War of Independence and the French Revolution highlighted the need for a deeper understanding of social processes. Several thinkers contributed their insights, prompting questions about the nature of society and the emergence of sociology:

• Hegel's Idealism: Hegel's theories influenced later philosophical and social thought, including

A. Behaviorist Theory

The behaviorist theory, proposed by B.F. Skinner in 1957, explains the acquisition of language from the standpoint of operant conditioning.

• Classical conditioning is the association between a stimulus that reinforces certain behavior. Operant conditioning is the same response that serves as reinforcement.
• Skinner and his followers believed that the link between words and their meanings is a bond of association established through simultaneous perceptions and the repetition of certain sounds and objects.
• This reductionist interpretation of language and the process by which it is acquired fails to explain only some secondary and minor aspects. It does not clarify essential features such as the acquisition of grammatical structures

Economic Reforms Under Manuel Rengifo (1830s)

During the government of President Prieto, Finance Minister Manuel Rengifo took major steps to revive the economy. His reforms included:

• Eliminating taxes on farming and manufacturing inputs.
• Reopening warehouses in Valparaíso to encourage foreign trade.
• Setting new tariffs for imports and exports.
• Liberalizing certain goods (exempting them from taxes), such as machinery.

This liberalization drove not only material development but also intellectual progress, as the availability of machinery allowed for the production and printing of books and newspapers.

Moreover, with the discovery of the Chañarcillo silver mine in 1832, the government could lighten the national debt and fund infrastructure projects,... Continue reading "The Prieto Era: Economic Reforms and Political Consolidation (1831-1841)" »

Understanding the Psychological Contract in Organizations

The psychological contract refers to the unwritten expectations and agreements between an individual and an organization when they begin employment. These implicit understandings significantly influence both employee satisfaction and their permanence and development within the organization.

Types of Employee Training

Effective training is crucial for employee development and organizational success. Training can be categorized into:

• Internal Training: This involves creating a specific department or dedicated resources within the company to provide training assistance to workers. This approach can save time and ensure training is highly relevant to internal processes.
• External Training: Companies

Core Environmental Concepts

The Environment Defined

The global system constituted by natural and artificial physical, chemical, or biological elements, sociocultural factors, and their interactions. It is constantly modified by human action or natural processes, and conditions the existence and development of life in its many manifestations.

Key Moments in Global Environmental Policy

Development of the Global Environmental Agenda

1. Washington Convention: Focused on protecting wildlife and the natural beauty of the Americas.
2. Stockholm Conference (1972): Focused on the human environment.
3. Brundtland Commission (1987): Defined the concept of sustainable development.
4. Rio de Janeiro Conference (1992): Focused on environment and development (UNCED).

Environmental

Fundamental Concepts of Organizational Structure

Types of Organizations

Organizations can be classified based on the explicit definition and distribution of roles, responsibilities, and authority among their members.

Formal Organizations

These organizations fulfill characteristics where activities, responsibilities, and authority are distributed among members in a precise, explicit, and relatively permanent manner. Examples include schools, colleges, and businesses in general.

Informal Organizations

These organizations do not have an explicitly defined distribution of activities, responsibilities, and authority, even though they comply with the basic characteristics of an organization. They are characterized by highly dynamic relations between members.... Continue reading "Organizational Structure: Types, Culture Elements, and Strategic Goals" »

The Cultural Animal: Human Nature & Culture

The study of human nature begins with its biological constitution. However, a necessary opening to culture gives rise to what we call the cultural animal. Cultural adaptation introduces an effective way of providing symbolic language and techniques, which allow for orientation in the world. The world of culture diminishes the fear of the accidental and unintended.

Understanding the Concept of the Individual

An individual is any complete being that belongs to a species. This term is often used synonymously with 'human being' because each human is unique and unrepeatable.

Individualism and Its Societal Limits

According to the theory of possessive individualism, every person owns their own being and capabilities,... Continue reading "Human Nature, Society, and the Evolution of Culture" »

Economic Evolution: The Age of Autarchy (1939–1959)

Following the Civil War, the Franco regime implemented policies of economic self-reliance, known as the Age of Autarchy (1939–1959). With autarkic policies, the state heavily intervened in all sectors of the economy, driving public works.

Consequences of Autarchy

The period of autarchy led to several severe consequences:

• Economic stagnation due to low agricultural production, often exacerbated by drought.
• Lack of industrial development.
• Severe social problems resulting from product scarcity, leading to high prices and the proliferation of the black market, where products were sold at inflated prices.

The Stabilization Plan of 1959

The Stabilization Plan of 1959 marked the end of autarchy and initiated... Continue reading "Autarchy to Globalization: Economic Evolution and the Triad Powers" »