Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Monolingualism

Refers to a single linguistic community within the same state (e.g., Albania).

Linguistic Conflict

A situation that occurs when there is tension, normalization, or replacement of languages. Conflict between two linguistic communities and social dimensions always leads to language normalization or language shift.

Language Shift

The process through which a first language is gradually replaced by another. This process of linguistic substitution is normally directly related to homogenization processes within a certain state framework or to processes of colonialism. For a process of substitution to start, an element of political pressure is necessary, such that the linguistic community must become a minority.

Linguistic Right

A discipline... Continue reading "Sociolinguistic Terminology: Language Contact and Dynamics" »

Literary Texts

• Mastery of poetics
• Innovative character
• Realization process (Never exactly reflects the outside world)
• Connotation and polysemy (Words take on particular contextual meaning)
• Appellative structure

Scientific Texts

• Objectivity
• Universality (Affirming truths for all phenomena: past, present, and future)
• Precision and clarity
• Cryptic character (Vocabulary available only to a privileged few, see points 1, 2, 3)

Legal Texts

• Imperative nature
• Predominance of appellative and expository functions
• Reference to other texts
• Necessarily written
• Conservative language
• Tendency towards objectivity
• Seeks precision and clarity

Advertising Texts

• Internal unity of image-text (topic)
• Brevity and condensation
• Structure: Headline (hook) - Body (product description and arguments)

Semiology: An Introduction to Linguistic Science

Semiology is the science that studies how environment has become the facts of language. It has gone through three successive phases before recognizing its true and only object of study:

1. Grammar: A study based on logic and devoid of any scientific view.
2. Language Rules: Only provides rules to distinguish correct forms from incorrect forms.
3. Discipline Rules: Rules far removed from pure observation with an unnecessarily narrow point of view.

Philology

This phase primarily aims to establish, interpret, and comment on texts, leading it to also address literary history, customs, institutions, etc. The flaw is that it considers written language too much and neglects living language.

Comparative Philology or

Logical Positivism and the Vienna Circle

Logical Positivism, often associated with the Vienna Circle, was a significant philosophical movement. Key figures included Moritz Schlick and Rudolf Carnap.

Origins and Objectives

The movement originated with Schlick, who began organizing regular workshops involving experts in philosophy, physics, and mathematics. The primary objective was to establish the limits of knowledge on an empirical basis, achieved through the construction of a unified language of science. This involved using scientific knowledge and the precision of formal languages, like mathematics, as a reference.

Core Characteristics

Logical Positivism is characterized by:

• Radical Empiricism: Knowledge is derived solely from sensory experience.

Papal Social Teachings: Key Documents (1891-1991)

1. Rerum Novarum (1891)

Author: Pope Leo XIII

Context:

Addressed the Church's involvement in political affairs. Contextualized by pressing social issues, particularly the scandalous gap between rich and poor.

Key Themes:

• Social justice and family
• Workers' rights and dignity of labor
• Role of the state in social welfare
• Duties of employers
• Defense of private property

2. Quadragesimo Anno (1931)

Author: Pope Pius XI

Context:

Commemorating 40 years since Rerum Novarum.

Key Themes:

• Promotes harmony between social classes
• Calls for equitable distribution of goods based on social justice
• Disapproves of the effects of greed

3. Radio Message: Solemnity (1941)

Author: Pope Pius XII

Context:

Second World War.

Key Themes:

• Promotes

Agenda 21: Blueprint for Sustainable Development

Agenda 21 is an action plan that seeks to create a model of sustainable development worldwide. It was adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. What is most striking in this plan is Chapter 28, which emphasizes the responsibilities of cities to achieve change on environmental issues and proposes that they develop their own local environmental agendas and plans.

Kyoto Protocol: Combating Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Objective and Target Gases

The Kyoto Protocol's objective is to stop the greenhouse effect by reducing emissions of specific gases:

• Carbon dioxide
• Methane
• Nitrous oxide
• Hydrofluorocarbons
• Perfluorocarbons
• Sulfur hexafluoride

Key Measures and Cooperation

Key measures include:

• Strengthening

The Restoration Period in Spain (1874-1902)

The Restoration System: Monarchy and Doctrinaire Liberalism

• The Restoration began with the *Pronunciamiento* of Martínez Campos in 1874, aiming for political stability under a monarchy.
• Key figures: King Alfonso XII and Regent Cánovas del Castillo, who championed a system based on order, patriotism, religious values, and doctrinaire liberalism.

The 1876 Constitution

• Drafted by a commission of distinguished figures, primarily Cánovas.
• Key features:
  • Broad declaration of freedoms and rights (Article 69).
  • Shared sovereignty between the King and the Cortes.
  • Catholicism as the official state religion.
  • Bicameral system (Congress of Deputies and Senate).
  • Executive and judicial power largely vested in the King.

Bipartisanship:

A New Techno-Scientific Revolution: Sound and Image

The experimental method advanced rapidly, bringing specialized knowledge about reality and matter in the fields of organic chemistry, physics, biology, and medicine. Technology improved health, life expectancy, and the daily lives of people. In the 1920s, wireless telegraphy allowed communication across borders through broadcasters and radio receivers. Homes began receiving news and entertainment programs very quickly through sound. In the 1930s, politicians used radio for electoral proposals. People saw the first films, and film with sound was more powerful, leaving behind the old silent films. The Warner Brothers crisis introduced sound film.

The Impact of Science on the Mind

A progressive... Continue reading "Technological & Scientific Revolution: Sound, Image & Culture" »

The Roman Education System: Foundations

Early education, significantly influenced by Greek practices, often began within the family. Teachers, known as magistri, imparted a variety of lessons. The Roman educational system progressed through distinct stages:

• Primary Education: Taught by the litterator.
• Secondary Education: Led by the grammaticus.
• Higher Education: Guided by the rhetor.

Higher education often involved a year or two of intensive oratorical practice. Young men typically concluded their formal studies upon reaching the age of majority.

Primary Education: The Litterator's School

During the late Roman Republic and throughout the Empire, primary education typically began for children aged 7 to 11. While some wealthy families employed private... Continue reading "Ancient Roman Education System: Schools & Learning" »

Human Nature: Biological, Behavioral, and Social Dimensions

Biological and Anatomical Differences

The genetic and biochemical differences among humans are not very significant, unlike the anatomical ones. These anatomical distinctions include the lower teeth and jaw, the precise hand and thumb complex, bipedal upright posture, and advanced brain development.

Behavioral Distinctions

Human behavior is characterized by several unique capacities:

• Capable of life in symbolization.
• Understanding reality.
• Awareness of the body.
• An inherent sense of openness to the world.
• Free will.
• Capacity for conclusion.
• Introspection.
• Ability to imagine and reason.

Socialization Processes

An individual internalizes the culture of the society in which they live through various... Continue reading "Human Nature: Biological, Behavioral, and Cultural Foundations" »