Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Political and Geographical Terms

Territory

A territory is an extension of land with defined boundaries. These can be geographical or administrative boundaries.

Status

Status refers to a political unit - an independent administrative institution with the authority to exercise an independent judiciary.

Nation

A nation is a whole population that shares cultural traits.

Frontier

A frontier is a border limited to a specific geographic area.

Nation-State

A nation-state is a state that contains only one nation.

Multinational State

A multinational state is a state with many nations.

Stateless Nation

A stateless nation is a nation without a state.

Centralist State

In a centralist state, the legislative power resides in a single government.

Decentralized State

In a decentralized

Components of Socioeconomic Development

• Progress: Movement and change of civilization, in social, political, and economic aspects, towards a more desirable and favorable state.
• Modernity: Massive social change that affects political, economic, administrative, family, and religious structures. It involves significant aspects of societal transformation.
• Social Well-being: A situation where people have enough to live in peace because most of their basic needs are met. Considered basic variables include education, employment, health, food, and security.
• Social Cohesion: Stability and social organization. Members of a cohesive group typically share proximity, similar behaviors, and skills. Members of a cohesive group participate in meetings, take responsibility,

Management Functions: Execution

Activities involved in putting into practice the philosophy of empowerment for all concerned:

• Drive and challenge others to do their best.
• Motivate members.
• Communicate effectively.
• Develop members who realize their potential.
• Communicate effectively with recognition and reward; provide good pay for a job well done.
• Supervise the efforts of execution in the light of monitoring results.

Management Functions: Control

To check and monitor what is being done to ensure that the work of others is progressing satisfactorily toward the predetermined goal.

Activities:

• Compare the results with the general plans.
• Evaluate the results against performance standards.
• Effectively devise means to measure operations, which are the means to

Aging Populations

Population dynamics involve births, deaths, and migration. Spain is experiencing demographic aging, a trend expected to continue for decades. The baby boom generation represents a significant portion of the population, with a notable increase in older women compared to men. This largely urban population presents challenges, particularly regarding pension costs, especially in Mediterranean Europe.

Effects of Aging

• Feminization of old age
• Increased social presence of seniors
• Superannuation and its impact
• Growth in the number of older adults

Consequences of Aging

• A growing proportion of elderly individuals without children (primary caregivers)
• The existence of multigenerational families, altering family dynamics in both rural and urban

Evolution of Moderate and Progressive Approaches in Spain (1808-1855)

Fernando VII's reign began in 1808. The start of the decade saw an absolutist Spanish formal university curriculum by 1824, known as the Calomarde Plan.

This plan was a major achievement in college, boosting its government. It transformed the figure of the rector while limiting it to the cloister (the process of centralization). Teachers ought to have sound doctrine and be examples of good conduct, and be responsible for the *aprovechamiento* (academic progress) of their students. Access to the chair was in opposition, in which human, moral, and political qualities were valued, as well as academic ones. There were three types of teachers: owners, substitutes, and *sustitutos*... Continue reading "Moderate and Progressive Education Reforms in Spain (1808-1855)" »

Techniques and Technologies

Techniques are the knowledge, skills, and tools used internationally to achieve a goal, such as creating management systems or knowledge that can generate inventions to facilitate a particular job.

Technologies are applications of scientific knowledge to the production of useful objects.

Brief History of Techniques

It was only in the late eighteenth century, with the Industrial Revolution, that human productive capacity became sufficient to make extensive and deep changes. The industrial age is responsible for the emergence of technical means, made up of industrial concentration, farmland, cities, and infrastructure established over the last two centuries.

World-Economy

The initial cycles of the industrial era opened the... Continue reading "Techniques and Technologies: A World-Economy Perspective" »

The Power of Mathematics in Science

Mathematics is a natural language that describes natural laws. This shared language enables scientists from all disciplines to understand the world, transcending the limitations of their native tongues and fostering global scientific collaboration.

Precision and Conceptual Clarity

Mathematics offers a level of precision that surpasses natural language, allowing for more accurate and unambiguous communication of scientific concepts.

Prediction and Insight

As a predictive tool, mathematics can forecast the values of variables and reveal previously unknown relationships, providing deeper insights into phenomena.

Rigor and Argumentation

Mathematics employs rigorous logical deductions to develop and express knowledge.... Continue reading "Unveiling the Power of Mathematics in Scientific Discovery" »

Political Representation

The Concept of Political Representation

1. The Taxonomy of Political Representation

Elections are not an end in themselves, but a means of staffing political bodies. Political representation, as a key organizational problem, addresses this staffing process. Birch has outlined three disputes concerning parliamentary representation:

1. Who and what should be represented?
2. How are representatives selected?
3. How should representatives behave?

The first dispute concerns who should be included in the vote. The answer is all adults, excluding those incapacitated or mentally handicapped. However, societies are permeated by various social divisions. The answers to the second and third questions are more complex. The dispute over electoral... Continue reading "Political Representation: Taxonomy, Ambiguities, and Functions in Liberal Democracy" »

Impersonal Prayer:

• Natural: Natural phenomena
• Grammar: be, have, and do (used in the singular), e.g., "There is a hall in San Rafael."
• Impersonal with 'it': The subject, if it occurs, e.g., "Bread for sale..."
• Potential: The action concerned is performed, e.g., "Daisy made the phone call."

Analysis of the Word and its Objects

Written in 1990, it reflects on Costa Rican patriarchal society, though with the character as a Latin American country in the second half of the twentieth century. Relationships are obviously critical. The essay contains a criticism of patriarchy and a defense of women, within a sociocultural environment. It addresses the woman's troubled relationship with her own environment.

Registration of Speech

It presents popular speech... Continue reading "Analyzing Impersonal Prayer: Gender, Society, and Postmodernism" »

Social Classes in the 19th Century

Aristocracy and Wealthy Elites

Circles were common in private clubs and casinos frequented by the richest. Aristocratic salons and balls were prevalent. Clothing was ostentatious, and abundant appearance was cared for to enhance social standing.

Farmworkers: The Peasants

Despite the changes, peasants remained the largest population group in the early 20th century. Their lifestyle was traditional, and their views were conservative. Peasants were hostile to liberalism and socialism initially and did not support the notional cause. In contrast, they demonstrated support for conservatives, order, and religion.

Groups:

• The Wealthy: Liberal measures benefited them, and they became landowners.
• The Landless Laborers: They