Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Historical Context of the 17th Century

Following the Renaissance (15th and 16th centuries), the 17th century witnessed the emergence of the modern world across all levels of society. This period was marked by significant transformations in several key areas:

Economic Developments

There was substantial growth in trade and manufacturing. Early productive capital began to shift, gradually transforming feudal serfs into wage laborers, moving away from the guild system.

Political Landscape

Absolutist states, the first form of the modern state, dominated Europe, displacing feudal fiefs. Nobles were subjected to the absolute monarch (the sovereign), who, in turn, depended on lenders to finance the considerable costs of the centralized state. This included... Continue reading "17th-Century Transformation: Society, Science, Ideology" »

Key Historical Terms

Definitions: T7

• Music Economics: The Carlists pay a certain amount that would be collected by the provincial councils.
• Zanjón Peace: Spain promised Cuba a broad amnesty, the abolition of slavery, and political and administrative reforms.
• Electoral Fraud: Cheating coalitions, manipulations, and falsifications of the electoral census records.
• Peace of Paris: Spain ceded Cuba, and Jalal sold in Germany to the U.S. and the Pacific Marianas and the Carolines.
• Closure Cases: Boycott of the taxes imposed by Villaverde.

T8

• Federal Tortosa Pact: The federal Crown of Aragon wanted a federal state.
• Greuges Memorial: Unit of Catalan political manifesto.

T9

• Liga Agraria: Cerealistics Owners Association to act as a pressure group to achieve a

Newspapers: A Key Source of Information

A newspaper is a form of print media that informs the public about current events.

Features of a Newspaper

Newspapers are typically divided into sections. These sections include sports, entertainment, economy, opinion, and general information. The most important events are usually placed on the front page.

Newspaper Organization

Newspapers are generally organized with the front and back pages followed by national and international news.

Articles: Grammatical Components

An article is a type of word that precedes a noun, indicating whether it is specific or non-specific. Articles also denote the gender and number of the noun.

Article Classification

• Definite Articles: Used when the noun is known or specific.
• Neutral

Social Group Concepts

Tribus

An anthropological concept referring to joint families with a common patriarch.

Categorías

A more ambiguous term used to define a group of people related by certain characteristics (e.g., property can be a category).

Estamentos

Typical of the Middle Ages (e.g., the nobility, the clergy).

Clases sociales

A term coined by philosopher Karl Marx to designate different social groups and their role in relation to their level or means of production. Today, its strict sense has diminished as division is less simple. While the term capitalism is sometimes used loosely, sociology often uses concepts like middle class, lower class, and upper class.

Clan

A group of people with a head, often linked by an economic relationship. For example,

Manifesto of the Congress of Munich (1962)

Summary of the 1962 Munich Congress Manifesto

This document was presented at the conference held in Munich in 1962, involving members representing all shades of opposition to the Franco regime. The fundamental idea of the text is the establishment of a democratic system in Spain. The Manifesto required the following essential policy changes:

• Genuinely representative institutions elected by the citizens.
• Respect for Human Rights and fundamental freedoms.
• Freedom of association and the right to strike.
• Creation of political parties and different schools of thought.

Key Vocabulary and Concepts

Congress of the European Movement

This meeting, held in Munich in 1962, was convened by the European Movement (a platform... Continue reading "Munich Congress 1962: Demands for Democracy in Franco's Spain" »

Chapter IX: Environmental Rights

Article 124: Protecting Intellectual Property and Collective Knowledge

Article 124 guarantees and protects intellectual property and collective knowledge.

Article 125: Indigenous Peoples' Right to Political Participation

Article 125 states that Indigenous peoples have the right to political participation.

Article 126: Indigenous Peoples as Part of the Nation

Article 126 affirms that Indigenous peoples, as cultures with ancestral roots, are part of the Nation.

Article 127: Environmental Protection as a Right and Duty

Article 127 establishes that it is a right and duty of each generation to protect and maintain the environment for its own benefit.

Article 128: State's Role in Environmental Planning

Article 128 mandates... Continue reading "Venezuela's Constitution: Indigenous Rights, Environment & Armed Forces" »

The Standard Language Variety

Language varieties have been created throughout history. A common variety, called a standard language, is one where dialect differences are poorly marked. Historically, this variety has been more associated with written communication than oral; however, it currently serves as a model for written language, oral communication, and mass media.

The standard variety is characterized by:

• Having a norm (or 'law') which serves as a reference model for speakers.
• Adapting to the changes that users can introduce.
• Presenting different rules or sub-norms based on the speech of educated speakers from various dialects.
• Being disseminated through institutions such as the Royal Spanish Academy, education, and communication media.

It is... Continue reading "Language Varieties and Communication Registers" »

Opportunities for Choice in Agenda Formation

Why are major opportunities for choice present in the formation of the agenda? What factors determine these opportunities for choice?

A problem has the possibility of being selected as a priority item on the agenda. We refer to these as opportunities for choice. Kingdon takes into account the importance of timing in the political process and makes an analogy between opportunities for choice and the windows used for space launches, calling them "policy windows." These windows are opportunities to advance certain initiatives, but they are open for only short periods. If participants are unable to take advantage of these opportunities, they have to wait until a new opportunity arises.

The flow of opportunities... Continue reading "Policy Windows and Agenda Formation: Timing in Politics" »

1. Social Action

Manuel Moix defines social action as any effort made by individuals, groups, or communities to achieve social progress by advancing social policy and improving social conditions and services within a country.

It covers basic needs and addresses emerging requirements. The dynamic relationship between needs and resources drives progress, which can be hindered if there is a disconnect between social needs and resource planning. Social action involves intervening in the balance between needs and resources, which can be categorized into four meanings:

• As a theory: The body of knowledge that addresses the gap between needs and resources.
• As a professional activity: Organized efforts to resolve social needs through the application of

Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was an Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer, often referred to as the "father of observational astronomy" and the "father of modern physics." He studied medicine at Pisa but abandoned it in 1589 to accept a professorship of mathematics at the university. His ideas, contrary to Aristotle's physics (such as the principle of inertia), and his experiments on mechanics (e.g., speed of falling solids, pendular movement) led to much reproach from his countrymen. This opposition, particularly regarding the prevailing Geocentrism, led him to leave Tuscany.

Geocentrism

An astronomical system that posits the Earth as the center of the universe, with all other planets revolving around it. This model, also... Continue reading "Pioneers and Paradigms: Shaping Science and Thought" »