Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

The Fascist Grand Council and the Transition to Democracy in Italy

The Fascist Grand Council was created in 1922 and became part of state institutions in 1928, effectively becoming the owner of the sovereignty of the state. In 1927, it adopted the Charter of Labor, subordinating economic forces to the development of national power. The Council, chaired by the Duce, had a dual character: a State organ and an organ of the party.

The Chamber of Deputies was elected in 1928 through the Acerbo Act, which attached 2/3 of the seats to the national list with the most votes. However, the regime disliked even this limited potential opposition. In 1928, the Corporate House was established with 400 deputies elected in a single national school, with candidates... Continue reading "Fascist Grand Council and the Transition to Democracy in Italy" »

School Failure: Problems and Solutions

Introduction

Schools face numerous challenges. One emerging trend is the concept of "dying of success," where the ease of independent learning at home, facilitated by new technologies, potentially undermines traditional schooling. Teachers often encounter resistance from students who prefer self-directed learning. This phenomenon raises questions about cultural arbitrariness, multiculturalism, and classroom violence. Furthermore, the perceived devaluation of teachers and the increasing emphasis on credentials for employment add to the complexity.

Dimensions of Reform

School failure in Spain is notably higher than in other parts of Europe and appears to be growing. The issue is particularly evident in secondary... Continue reading "Understanding School Failure: Causes and Solutions" »

Shifting the World's Image: Geocentric to Heliocentric

The geocentric model (Earth at the center of the universe) was finally replaced by the heliocentric model (Sun at the center of the universe). This fundamental shift underpins modern science, introducing a new, unitary conception of the universe.

Unlike the Aristotelian interpretation, which posited distinct supralunar and sublunary worlds—the latter allowing for decomposition and imperfections—the Scientific Revolution established a universe without privileged regions. Consequently, the universe is now understood as homogeneous in its material and phenomena, with the same laws governing movements on Earth and throughout the cosmos.

Modern science would not have been possible without significant... Continue reading "Scientific Revolution: Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and the New Cosmos" »

Ancient vs. Modern Democracy: Core Distinctions

To address the challenges of contemporary societies by drawing upon the Greek experience, it is essential to analyze the fundamental differences between ancient democracies and those that emerged two millennia later. Key distinctions include:

• Community Size: Communities in ancient Greece were significantly smaller.
• Economic Structure: They were compact and largely economically independent. Although their economy heavily relied on slave labor, slaves were not considered citizens.
• Nature of Rule: In Greek democracy, the concept of rule as we understand it today did not exist. There was no separate institution in society functioning independently. Instead, direct democracy operated not just in deliberations

Understanding Socialization and Social Norms

Instincts are biologically determined patterns of behavior, many of which are shared with other animals. However, human behavior is profoundly shaped by the process of socialization, which involves acquiring knowledge, forming bonds, and integrating into society. This process helps individuals internalize social norms and values. The absence of such a regulatory model can lead to a state of anomie, or normlessness. In contrast, when there is harmony in a society, its inhabitants are more likely to promote the social good, a goal often aligned with humanistic principles that seek collective and individual well-being.

Primary Socialization

Stage

This occurs during the first years of a child's life.

Features

• Acquisition

Concept of School Organization

Perspectives on Organization

a) An effective component of the teaching-learning process, constituting a systemic-ecological framework in which systematic processes are developed. It conveys implicit and explicit teaching content and requires knowledge and attitude change in a participatory, reflective, open, and versatile way to serve society.

b) Science of Education that studies and participates seamlessly in all aspects of educational centers, considering their multiple dimensions: educational ventures, control mechanisms and social power, structural dimension, hidden aspects, capacity for intervention, and need for improvement.

c) Ruíz Hernández (1954): Arrangement of elements necessary to educate children through... Continue reading "School Organization Concepts and Roles" »

Spanish Language: Characteristics and Usage

In 1998, the Cervantes Institute Yearbook presented the situation of Spanish in the world:

• Homogeneous Language: The Spanish language has a significant degree of leveling and a slight risk of fragmentation. Its relative homogeneity is based on the fact that Spanish has a simple vowel system (with only five vowel phonemes), a consonant system consisting of seventeen units common to all speakers, and a significant lexical and syntactic uniformity with few variations.
• Language of First-Order Culture: Spanish has been a very important vehicle for contributions to world culture and Western thought. It is enough to list authors in literature ranging from Cervantes to García Márquez.
• International Language:

The Labor Movement: Working Conditions

Working conditions imposed by established entrepreneurs on workers were harsh and exploitative. These conditions included:

• Excessively long working hours (up to 16 hours daily).
• Lack of health and safety measures in the workplace.
• Widespread child labor.
• Low wages (especially for women).
• Free dismissal (at-will employment).
• Lack of holidays and social security.
• Prohibition of association, preventing workers from defending their rights.

The Beginnings of the Labor Movement

Early Reactions and Organizations

The initial reaction to poor working conditions emerged in the UK. Key early developments included:

Luddism

A movement featuring workers (sometimes called machine-breakers or maquinoclastas) who destroyed machinery

Organization: From Mass to Lean Production

Concepts will be studied with the help of case studies.

The automotive industry is chosen because it provides a historically didactic presentation of these concepts.

1.1. The Automobile Industry in Transition

The auto industry is a major industrial activity, with more than 50 million vehicles produced each year.

Twice in the last century, this industry has changed our notions of how to produce goods.

After the 1st World War, Alfred Sloan (GM) and Henry Ford (Ford) led a major change: from centuries of Craft Production (with leadership from European industries) to the era of Mass Production (early U.S. leadership).

After the 2nd World War, Eiji Toyoda and Taiichi Ohno of Toyota in Japan pioneered the concept... Continue reading "Production Methods Evolution" »

Exhibition: A Form of Discourse

Exhibition as a form of discourse presents scientific, technical, historical, or literary information to inform the intended audience. The defining characteristics of exhibition are clarity and objectivity, with a predominantly referential function.

Depending on the target audience, two types of exposition can be differentiated: informative and specialized.

• Informative: The author reports as clearly and objectively as possible on a topic of general interest. It targets non-specialists in that area and often uses media channels. The speech must be easily understood, and any specific lexicon must be explained.
• Specialized: The author addresses an audience that already possesses knowledge of a given science or technique.