Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

A. Behaviorist Theory

The behaviorist theory, proposed by B.F. Skinner in 1957, explains the acquisition of language from the standpoint of operant conditioning.

• Classical conditioning is the association between a stimulus that reinforces certain behavior. Operant conditioning is the same response that serves as reinforcement.
• Skinner and his followers believed that the link between words and their meanings is a bond of association established through simultaneous perceptions and the repetition of certain sounds and objects.
• This reductionist interpretation of language and the process by which it is acquired fails to explain only some secondary and minor aspects. It does not clarify essential features such as the acquisition of grammatical structures

Understanding the Psychological Contract in Organizations

The psychological contract refers to the unwritten expectations and agreements between an individual and an organization when they begin employment. These implicit understandings significantly influence both employee satisfaction and their permanence and development within the organization.

Types of Employee Training

Effective training is crucial for employee development and organizational success. Training can be categorized into:

• Internal Training: This involves creating a specific department or dedicated resources within the company to provide training assistance to workers. This approach can save time and ensure training is highly relevant to internal processes.
• External Training: Companies

Core Environmental Concepts

The Environment Defined

The global system constituted by natural and artificial physical, chemical, or biological elements, sociocultural factors, and their interactions. It is constantly modified by human action or natural processes, and conditions the existence and development of life in its many manifestations.

Key Moments in Global Environmental Policy

Development of the Global Environmental Agenda

1. Washington Convention: Focused on protecting wildlife and the natural beauty of the Americas.
2. Stockholm Conference (1972): Focused on the human environment.
3. Brundtland Commission (1987): Defined the concept of sustainable development.
4. Rio de Janeiro Conference (1992): Focused on environment and development (UNCED).

Environmental

The Cultural Animal: Human Nature & Culture

The study of human nature begins with its biological constitution. However, a necessary opening to culture gives rise to what we call the cultural animal. Cultural adaptation introduces an effective way of providing symbolic language and techniques, which allow for orientation in the world. The world of culture diminishes the fear of the accidental and unintended.

Understanding the Concept of the Individual

An individual is any complete being that belongs to a species. This term is often used synonymously with 'human being' because each human is unique and unrepeatable.

Individualism and Its Societal Limits

According to the theory of possessive individualism, every person owns their own being and capabilities,... Continue reading "Human Nature, Society, and the Evolution of Culture" »

Economic Evolution: The Age of Autarchy (1939–1959)

Following the Civil War, the Franco regime implemented policies of economic self-reliance, known as the Age of Autarchy (1939–1959). With autarkic policies, the state heavily intervened in all sectors of the economy, driving public works.

Consequences of Autarchy

The period of autarchy led to several severe consequences:

• Economic stagnation due to low agricultural production, often exacerbated by drought.
• Lack of industrial development.
• Severe social problems resulting from product scarcity, leading to high prices and the proliferation of the black market, where products were sold at inflated prices.

The Stabilization Plan of 1959

The Stabilization Plan of 1959 marked the end of autarchy and initiated... Continue reading "Autarchy to Globalization: Economic Evolution and the Triad Powers" »

Corporate Philosophy and Values

The philosophy of an organization generates a priority scale of values, setting the criteria for internal behavior. It's the "being" of a company, the shared vision shaping its corporate culture. This culture manifests in actions addressing environmental issues, opportunities, and management changes. Core business values provide direction, guiding daily operations and fostering a sense of identity and belonging. They promote ethical behavior—professionally, personally, and socially—and a capacity to achieve common goals. Ethical professional conduct converges business and labor interests. When professionals act ethically and responsibly, aiming for effectiveness and productivity, it's reasonable they receive... Continue reading "Corporate Philosophy, Values, and Strategy for Business Success" »

José Ortega y Gasset: Historical Context

During the lifetime of José Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955), Spain experienced the most diverse political forms. This period saw the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, which was replaced by the Second Republic, subsequently interrupted by the Civil War, leading to Franco's dictatorship. Outside of Spain, the era was marked by the loss of Cuba and the Philippines, known as the Disaster of '98. Globally, the First and Second World Wars, the Cold War, German Nazism, and Italian Fascism profoundly shaped the geopolitical landscape.

Socio-Cultural Landscape of Ortega's Era

Society witnessed a significant growth in the political influence of the middle class and increased participation of the masses in political... Continue reading "José Ortega y Gasset: Context, Thought, and Enduring Legacy" »

Franco's Rejection of Democracy and the Rise of Organic Democracy

Franco rejected the democratic system, based on popular will, suffrage, and the separation of powers. For the construction of the new state, he was inspired by the Italian corporatist state, which organized popular participation from three basic units: the family, the town, and the union. These represented the natural elements of society, according to the regime, unlike political parties, which are the instrument of citizen participation in democratic systems.

The System of Organic Democracy

The system was named organic democracy, a name with which the regime wanted to give a certain legitimacy, but it clearly differentiated itself from representative democracy. Popular representation... Continue reading "Franco's Regime: Organic Democracy in Spain" »

Understanding Leadership Styles

Autocratic Leadership Style

• Characteristics:
  • Leader holds discretionary powers and assumes full responsibility.
  • Does not delegate tasks or distribute work.
  • Establishes a bonus system based solely on results, without considering individuals or circumstances.
• Implications:
  • Can lead to demotivation.
  • Encourages nervous competition among group members.
  • Promotes individualism.
  • Results in a lack of group cohesion.

Laissez-faire (Hands-Off) Leadership Style

• Characteristics:
  • Boss does not make decisions or interfere; the group makes them.
  • Does not recognize or criticize results.
  • Provides no guidelines or establishes work plans.
• Consequences:
  • Individualism.
  • Poor group motivation.
  • Poor relationships between group members.
  • Absence of group