Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

In a study conducted by George Graen, it is argued that due to external pressures, leaders establish special relationships with a small group of subordinates. These relationships are classified into two distinct groups: the Internal Group and the External Group.

Internal Group Dynamics

Members of the internal group establish a special relationship with the leader, receiving a disproportionate amount of attention and special privileges. This close bond often leads to greater support and resources from the leader.

External Group Dynamics

This group receives less attention and time from the leader. Members may feel excluded from the leader's primary focus, receiving fewer rewards or benefits. Their relationship with... Continue reading "Understanding Leader-Member Exchange and Path-Goal Theories" »

Violent Personalities and Social Marginalization

Types of Violent Personality Profiles

These profiles often exhibit behaviors linked to low frustration tolerance or deep-seated insecurity:

1. Overprotection: Individuals with a very low frustration level who have never heard a definitive "no" and easily become overwhelmed. When faced with life's challenges, they retreat quickly, unwilling to make any effort or sacrifice.
2. Complex of Inferiority or Insecurity: People who react violently to any perceived threat to their "weak ego."
3. Maltreatment: Individuals who feel battered by life and believe that society owes them a debt. They act with deep resentment, often because they have never known love or affection. This type is a source of potential violence

Marx's Political Philosophy: Historical Materialism

Karl Marx considered his historical materialism a practical method of social and historical analysis, serving as a foundation for political strategy. For Marx, history is the development of human life, shaped by real people under specific conditions. Thus, the primary subject of history is society itself.

Marx posited that historical development results from the tension between opposing forces, specifically between different classes. He famously declared that the motor of history is class struggle.

The Division of Labor and Class Conflict

A pivotal concept for Marx is the division of labor. Its emergence led to the creation of surplus and, consequently, a struggle for its control. The far-reaching... Continue reading "Marxist Theory: Historical Materialism and Class Struggle" »

Scientific-Technical Texts

A scientific-technical text aims to convey factual knowledge, tested and proven, to enhance the receiver's understanding in a specific scientific field.

The author, typically a specialist, adapts their language to ensure comprehension by recipients who may not be experts. These texts employ clear, accurate, and objective language, often with specialized terminology.

Based on their discipline, these texts include:

• Scientific texts: Aim to explain objective, immutable ideas and concepts from science (e.g., physics, mathematics).
• Technical texts: Focus on developing and applying scientific knowledge.

Key Features of Scientific-Technical Texts

Their rigor and precision are characterized by:

• Expository nature: Primarily expository,

Social Change

Societies can evolve, progressing to more advanced stages or, conversely, decline as seen with the Roman Empire. Changes can be involutive (reversals), such as natural disasters or shifts from democracy to dictatorship. Other changes can be beneficial and progressive.

Resistance to Change

Social institutions maintain stability and resist disruptive pressures, sometimes suppressing or neutralizing these forces to prevent structural transformation.

The Law's Role

The law plays a significant role in resistance to change. Some theories posit that law obstructs social change, while others argue it's a tool for class domination, perpetuating existing social structures.

Law as Obstacle and Factor

The law isn't always an obstacle or solely... Continue reading "Social Change and the Law: Resistance, Evolution, and Impact" »

The General Strike of 1917 in Brazil

The General Strike of 1917 refers to the widespread industrial and commercial stoppage that occurred in Brazil in July 1917. This mobilization arose from the growing influence of labor organizations and the anarcho-syndicalist-inspired libertarian press. It became one of the most comprehensive and significant labor actions in Brazilian history.

Key Demands of the 1917 Strike

The workers presented several crucial requirements:

1. That all persons detained by reason of the strike be set at liberty.
2. That the absolute right of association for workers be respected.
3. That no worker be dismissed for having participated actively and openly in the strike.
4. That the exploitation of labor of minors under 14 years in factories,

What is Speech and its Purpose?

Speech is the art of speaking to an audience to please and persuade in some way. Its purpose is to understand the speeches that have been developed according to the rules of rhetoric.

The Origin of Rhetoric

Rhetoric flourished in the democratic cities of Greece in the 5th century BC. The Sicilians Corax (master) and Tisias (disciple) were the first creators of the theories of exhibition techniques useful for the speaker. They created a method to discuss orally in the defense of judicial or political causes, based on the probability that one is more likely than the other.

The Role of Rhetoric

Rhetoric is the building of effective speeches. Each of the formal conceptual levels can enhance the intended persuasive effect.... Continue reading "Rhetoric: Origins, Purpose, and Significance" »

Understanding Legal Regulations and System Structures

Legal regulations encompass various forms, including bylaws and ministerial decrees, forming the foundational elements of a legal system.

Criteria for Competence in Legal Systems

Rules are sorted by a horizontal dimension, creating different areas of authority where various bodies are attributed the power to make rules. For instance, Autonomous Communities (ACs) have responsibility for health, agriculture, or commerce, while the state has jurisdiction over international relations or defense. These represent different material competencies attributed to specific organs; thus, state law differs from regional competence.

Criterion of Procedure: Development and Approval

In some systems, rules are... Continue reading "Spanish Legal System: Rule Hierarchy and Inter-System Relations" »

Historical materialism is the philosophy of society and history in Marxism. Marx assumed that the knowledge of man, society, and history requires a science whose subject matter, epistemological foundation, and method are radically different from those of the natural sciences. Historical materialism, Marx thought, is the true science of human phenomena (social and historical) and is presented as a scientific theory of the economic or material conditions of society and history.

The main idea of historical materialism is that history is not an accidental sequence of events resulting from the individual action of some influential characters and decisive action or imaginary subjects, like providence, fate, or the spirit of the people (Volkgeist),... Continue reading "Historical Materialism: Unveiling Society's Economic Foundations" »

Historical materialism, developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, is a theory that aims to study society and the laws governing its development. These laws are objective, independent of consciousness, and knowable. Humans employ these laws in their practical activity. Historical materialism provides a scientific study of social reality and its historical evolution from a materialistic standpoint.

Marx developed general concepts that allow the study of any society as a whole, not just at a particular historical moment. Through economic, historical, and philosophical theories, Marx sought to discover the laws governing social change and presented a method for interpreting social conflict and its transformation. The German Ideology already contains... Continue reading "Historical Materialism: Marx and Engels' Theory of Social Change" »