Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

The Market Mechanism Model of Democracy

Democracy in this model is characterized by the following:

1. A system to elect prepared and authorized government elites.
2. The elite selection system is competition between two or more self-selected groups of politicians.
3. Voters do not deliberate and decide on policy issues; rather, their role is choosing the people who make such decisions.

In this model, democracy resembles a market mechanism in which entrepreneurs are politicians and voters are the consumers. This political model aims to produce a balance between the diversity of interests and the sovereignty of consumers.

Consequences and Implications of the Model

Important consequences of this model are:

• To highlight the importance of the quality of elites in

Understanding the General State Budgets (PGE)

What are the General State Budgets (PGE)?

The General State Budgets (PGE) are forecasts conducted by the Government and approved by the Parliament (Cortes Generales). They detail the expected income and expenditures for the State during a specific fiscal year.

Why are the PGE necessary?

The PGE are necessary for the State to participate effectively in economic life by incurring expenditures and forecasting revenues. This process is essential to improve the welfare of citizens, benefit the country, and meet public needs.

The Budget Cycle: Phases and Duration

Phases of the Budget Cycle

1. Preparation: Developed under the Executive Power (Government), specifically by the Ministry of Finance. The project is referred

Emergence of Spain's Consumer Society

Despite limitations, economic development led to the emergence of a consumer society in Spain. The widespread use of appliances (two-thirds of households had television in 1969) and cars (one-quarter of Spanish families owned a car that year) were key elements exemplifying this new society.

The consumer society, marked by access to more information and greater mobility, brought about a new mindset, especially among the younger generation, which clashed with the traditionalism of the system. Key changes included:

• Progressive relaxation of the importance of the Church and religious habits.
• New relationship habits and patterns of social relations between the sexes, including the incorporation of women into the

Catalonia's Modernization: The Mancomunitat Era

The Mancomunitat de Catalunya carried out important work coordinating external services and creating networks of intellectuals and professionals. It undertook significant activities aimed at modernizing the country and improving public services.

Key Achievements of the Mancomunitat

• Creation of normal schools for teacher training and popular libraries.
• Establishment of a vocational school and an Industrial Labor University.
• Unification of spelling, initiated by Pompeu Fabra.
• Creation of Pompeu Fabra's scientific laboratory and provincial health laboratories for hygiene.
• Promotion of agriculture and livestock through experimental crop fields, model farms, technical assistance, and agricultural technical

The Regency of Maria Christina (1833-1840)

Initial Challenges and Reforms

Upon the death of Ferdinand VII, his widow, Maria Christina, assumed the regency. She appointed a cabinet presided over by Francisco Cea Bermúdez. Necessary reforms were carried out by Javier de Burgos. The same year Ferdinand VII died, absolutist sectors conspired in favor of Carlos, the late king's brother, leading to the outbreak of the First Carlist War.

The Royal Statute of 1834

The onset of civil war forced the regent to heed calls for a convocation of the Cortes. Martínez de la Rosa was called upon to form a new government, composed of prominent politicians from the Liberal Triennium. This government conceived the Royal Statute of 1834, a constitution granted as... Continue reading "Spain's Liberal Transformation and Carlist Conflicts" »

Definition of Sociology

Sociology is the systematic study of human life, groups, and societies. Its scope is broad, encompassing microsocial interactions and macrosocial processes.

Sociological Questions

Sociological questions can be:

• Factual: Questions of fact.
• Comparative: Relating to other societies.
• Developmental: Comparing the present with the past.
• Theoretical: Focusing on knowledge to interpret facts and discover their causes.

Theories

Theories are abstract constructs used to explain a wide variety of empirical situations. They are only valid if they are contrasted with empirical research.

Concept and Content of Culture

Culture refers to the entire lifestyle of members of a society, including dress, work patterns, ceremonies, and assets. Despite... Continue reading "Sociology: Definitions, Concepts, Characteristics, and Cultural Diversity" »

Analyse the relationship between population trends and international security. What factors might determine whether a population issue is a threat to international security? How does the international community tend to respond to such problems?

Intro:

• Several factors can determine whether a population issue is a threat to international security.
• These can be in regards to migration, fertility rates and terrorism.
• International community has tended to respond in accordance with nation-based responses, rather than coordinating a joint approach between themselves.

The State of Human Security

Demographic trends can hinder the achievement of human security, and thus affect the security of a nation. Many country governments have expressed concern about... Continue reading "Population Trends and International Security: Threats and Responses" »

1. Coherence

Coherence is a semantic property of discourse, based on the interpretation of sentences. It involves selecting and organizing information that aligns with the text's meaning, ensuring the receiver clearly perceives the message. The meaning of a text is derived from the sum of the sentences that constitute it. These relationships form the "microstructure" or local structure, which is superimposed by a "macrostructure" or general structure formed for each sub-topic or block of meaning within the text.

• Local coherence manifests in the sentences that constitute the text.
• Linear coherence allows for the relationship between phrases and sentences that correspond to the same idea.
• Global coherence is determined by the overall semantic content

Spain and the European Union

In 1985, Spain signed the Act of Accession to the European Economic Community (EEC). The right to basic human rights has always been, and remains, an indispensable precondition for EEC membership. Today, the European Union comprises 27 countries.

The Formation of the European Union

Treaty of Rome (1957)

In 1957, France, the then Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Luxembourg signed the founding treaty. This treaty provided for the gradual formation of a common market and the implementation of common institutions to coordinate policies among member countries. Thus, the EEC was born. In the agricultural field, a coordinated policy, the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), began in 1961.

In 1987, the Single European

Metaphysics and Marxist Analysis

Metaphysics: One of Marx's major contributions is his method of analyzing social and economic reality, and the historical development of society.

He interpreted history using Hegel's dialectical method from a materialist perspective, focusing on the development of contradictions (thesis, antithesis, synthesis).

Historical Materialism Explained

Historical Materialism: The only existing reality is matter. Historical and social analysis explains all social, political, and cultural aspects in terms of productive forces and production relations.

Marx distinguishes various structures that form the whole of society:

The Infrastructure of Society

• The basic infrastructure of society is the economic system, the way people are