Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Social sciences

Solon's Economic & Social Reforms

Solon implemented significant economic, social, and political changes, including freeing those enslaved by debt and prohibiting using oneself as loan collateral. He also reformed government institutions.

Cleisthenes' Democratic Reforms

Cleisthenes, in the late sixth century BC, organized citizens into demes based on residence, not birth or wealth. He expanded citizen participation, ensuring equal rights for all.

Pericles' Athenian Democracy

Pericles perfected the democratic system by transferring powers from the aristocratic Areopagus to the ecclesia. He introduced payments for public service, making it accessible beyond the wealthy, thus solidifying Athenian democracy in the 5th century BC.

Contrasting Political

Outline of Scientific Knowledge Through History

Greco-Medieval Era

Introduction

Philosophy was considered equivalent to Science and dealt with universal essences. Myth, on the other hand, was associated with *doxa*, representing multiple and changing appearances. The Middle Ages maintained a similar scheme, but with a theological basis.

The Universe: A Biological Model

• The universe was seen as a living being, finite (limited) and ordered (a cosmos), and full of matter (not empty).
• Qualitative Approach: Nature endowed each substance with potentialities determining its nature:
  • Plants: grow, survive, nurture, and reproduce.
  • Animals: feel, crave, and move.
  • Humans: think.
• Geocentric and Geostatic: A heterogeneous view where celestial phenomena differed from

Textual Units

A verbal text is a unit because we use words, but it also constitutes a semantic unit because it makes sense, and a communication unit because it appears in a particular communicative situation. A text must adhere to three fundamental principles:

Suitability

The text must correspond to the communicative situation. For example, a student greets a director with "Good morning, sir," not "*Che, como va?*"

Coherence

Organize different parts of the text's meaning. A text is coherent if it has a central idea, is properly organized, and answers the text as a whole. Elements that show no coherent organization of texts include titles and captions. Lastly, the issue should be closed with conclusions.

Cohesion

Establish the relationship between... Continue reading "Textual Cohesion and Coherence: Principles and Mechanisms" »

Rousseau's Core Ideas: Nature, Morality, and Policy

The fundamental concept of anthropological theory, morality, and policy, as outlined in Rousseau's Discourse on the Sciences and Arts and Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Men, centers on the inherent goodness of human nature and the corrupting influence of society. Evil, according to Rousseau, originates from social structures.

To develop this theory, Rousseau needed a working hypothesis: a theoretical assumption about human life before the establishment of social status, the state of nature. In contrast to Hobbes, Rousseau envisioned humans in this state as good, free, and happy, with inherent equality. The natural man possesses two dominant, basic feelings: self-love and natural... Continue reading "Rousseau's Philosophy: Human Nature, Society, and the General Will" »

Group Operations: Concrete

1. Formation of a Hierarchy of Classes

• a) 7-8 years: Can include classes.
• b) 8-9 years: Can classify to represent flowers in clusters. For example: What will a large branch be? If you cut all the flowers in the garden, would any remain? Can a daisy be in the "Flowers" category without changing the sign? If you take all the daisies from the box, would any flowers remain?
• c) They have difficulty in representing objects that involve mental representation. For example: If all animals died, would any birds remain? If all animals die, would some animals remain? Can these two cells be under the same sign? Children cannot respond to these problems until 10 or 12 years of age.
• d) In the absence of specific references, Piaget found

Literature of the Baroque: Lyric Theater

1. The Baroque Era: A Century of Crises and Conflicts

The 17th century, known as the Baroque period, was a time of widespread crisis—economic, demographic, political, social, and military. The Spanish Empire experienced a significant decline.

2. Baroque Ideology, Beliefs, and Thought

Religion permeated Baroque thinking. This religion, based on the Counter-Reformation, was deeply intolerant and controlling (Inquisition).

The Baroque worldview was pessimistic and disillusioned, reflecting a sense of crisis, the passage of time, and the brevity of life.

Religious beliefs intertwined with magical beliefs about the supernatural world (spirits, miracles, superstitions, etc.).

Concepts of honor, revenge, and violence... Continue reading "Spanish Baroque Literature: A Deep Dive" »

Political and Geographical Terms

Territory

A territory is an extension of land with defined boundaries. These can be geographical or administrative boundaries.

Status

Status refers to a political unit - an independent administrative institution with the authority to exercise an independent judiciary.

Nation

A nation is a whole population that shares cultural traits.

Frontier

A frontier is a border limited to a specific geographic area.

Nation-State

A nation-state is a state that contains only one nation.

Multinational State

A multinational state is a state with many nations.

Stateless Nation

A stateless nation is a nation without a state.

Centralist State

In a centralist state, the legislative power resides in a single government.

Decentralized State

In a decentralized

Aging Populations

Population dynamics involve births, deaths, and migration. Spain is experiencing demographic aging, a trend expected to continue for decades. The baby boom generation represents a significant portion of the population, with a notable increase in older women compared to men. This largely urban population presents challenges, particularly regarding pension costs, especially in Mediterranean Europe.

Effects of Aging

• Feminization of old age
• Increased social presence of seniors
• Superannuation and its impact
• Growth in the number of older adults

Consequences of Aging

• A growing proportion of elderly individuals without children (primary caregivers)
• The existence of multigenerational families, altering family dynamics in both rural and urban

Evolution of Moderate and Progressive Approaches in Spain (1808-1855)

Fernando VII's reign began in 1808. The start of the decade saw an absolutist Spanish formal university curriculum by 1824, known as the Calomarde Plan.

This plan was a major achievement in college, boosting its government. It transformed the figure of the rector while limiting it to the cloister (the process of centralization). Teachers ought to have sound doctrine and be examples of good conduct, and be responsible for the *aprovechamiento* (academic progress) of their students. Access to the chair was in opposition, in which human, moral, and political qualities were valued, as well as academic ones. There were three types of teachers: owners, substitutes, and *sustitutos*... Continue reading "Moderate and Progressive Education Reforms in Spain (1808-1855)" »

Techniques and Technologies

Techniques are the knowledge, skills, and tools used internationally to achieve a goal, such as creating management systems or knowledge that can generate inventions to facilitate a particular job.

Technologies are applications of scientific knowledge to the production of useful objects.

Brief History of Techniques

It was only in the late eighteenth century, with the Industrial Revolution, that human productive capacity became sufficient to make extensive and deep changes. The industrial age is responsible for the emergence of technical means, made up of industrial concentration, farmland, cities, and infrastructure established over the last two centuries.

World-Economy

The initial cycles of the industrial era opened the... Continue reading "Techniques and Technologies: A World-Economy Perspective" »