Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

• Features of Galileo and Descartes

  Galileo presents science as a hypothetical, deductive, and experimental method. This is central to his approach to the scientific method, framing the investigation of nature as a dialogue. The only way forward is to propose hypotheses, which involve imagination and intuition, not certainty. Descartes' scientific method contrasts; its core is analysis and synthesis, not hypothesis and experiment. Galileo's method is compositional:

  1. It encodes and reflects steps.
  2. It seeks to extend this method to all knowledge, including metaphysics.

  Descartes' approach combines two key aspects:

  1. Defining the scientific method.
  2. Extending the method to all knowledge.

  Galileo differs by seeking to extend the scientific method to other

The Fascist Grand Council and the Transition to Democracy in Italy

The Fascist Grand Council was created in 1922 and became part of state institutions in 1928, effectively becoming the owner of the sovereignty of the state. In 1927, it adopted the Charter of Labor, subordinating economic forces to the development of national power. The Council, chaired by the Duce, had a dual character: a State organ and an organ of the party.

The Chamber of Deputies was elected in 1928 through the Acerbo Act, which attached 2/3 of the seats to the national list with the most votes. However, the regime disliked even this limited potential opposition. In 1928, the Corporate House was established with 400 deputies elected in a single national school, with candidates... Continue reading "Fascist Grand Council and the Transition to Democracy in Italy" »

School Failure: Problems and Solutions

Introduction

Schools face numerous challenges. One emerging trend is the concept of "dying of success," where the ease of independent learning at home, facilitated by new technologies, potentially undermines traditional schooling. Teachers often encounter resistance from students who prefer self-directed learning. This phenomenon raises questions about cultural arbitrariness, multiculturalism, and classroom violence. Furthermore, the perceived devaluation of teachers and the increasing emphasis on credentials for employment add to the complexity.

Dimensions of Reform

School failure in Spain is notably higher than in other parts of Europe and appears to be growing. The issue is particularly evident in secondary... Continue reading "Understanding School Failure: Causes and Solutions" »

Spanish Language: Characteristics and Usage

In 1998, the Cervantes Institute Yearbook presented the situation of Spanish in the world:

• Homogeneous Language: The Spanish language has a significant degree of leveling and a slight risk of fragmentation. Its relative homogeneity is based on the fact that Spanish has a simple vowel system (with only five vowel phonemes), a consonant system consisting of seventeen units common to all speakers, and a significant lexical and syntactic uniformity with few variations.
• Language of First-Order Culture: Spanish has been a very important vehicle for contributions to world culture and Western thought. It is enough to list authors in literature ranging from Cervantes to García Márquez.
• International Language:

Exhibition: A Form of Discourse

Exhibition as a form of discourse presents scientific, technical, historical, or literary information to inform the intended audience. The defining characteristics of exhibition are clarity and objectivity, with a predominantly referential function.

Depending on the target audience, two types of exposition can be differentiated: informative and specialized.

• Informative: The author reports as clearly and objectively as possible on a topic of general interest. It targets non-specialists in that area and often uses media channels. The speech must be easily understood, and any specific lexicon must be explained.
• Specialized: The author addresses an audience that already possesses knowledge of a given science or technique.

Human Language: Unique Characteristics

Human language possesses several distinctive characteristics that set it apart from animal communication systems. These features contribute to its complexity, flexibility, and power.

Creativity

Humans have the ability to construct new sentences, enabling us to convey novel experiences to our listeners. We possess an infinite capacity to express and understand the meaning of sentences by using known elements to produce new ones. This contrasts with the fixed and limited set of calls used by animals.

Displacement

We can refer to events and objects that are not spatially or temporally present. This displacement feature is fundamental to cultural and technical progress and is not observed in any other animal species.... Continue reading "Human Language: Unique Characteristics and Properties" »

Technical Healthcare Models

Program in Health

Analysis of the health situation through patterns of illness, vulnerability, and risk of death by disease and injury.

Intersectoral Policies

Analysis of health based on general living conditions, highlighting the need for access to collective goods crucial for healthcare quality. Emphasizes intersectoral health promotion in areas like environment, education, physical activity, and urban planning.

Health Promotion

Combines epidemiological methods with health promotion, emphasizing health education and individual/population autonomy. Considers factors affecting health quality, the need for information to promote independence, and access to healthcare technologies. Stresses the link between health professionals... Continue reading "Technical Healthcare Models & Relief Model Construction in SUS" »

Second Industrial Revolution: Characteristics and Impacts

The Second Industrial Revolution, initially termed the "second technical revolution," encompassed a broad range of transformations within the industrialization process. While technological changes remained central, the period also witnessed significant shifts in market size and structure. These technical innovations triggered a cascade of changes affecting the workforce, the educational and scientific systems, corporate governance, work organization, consumption patterns, and even politics. This series of economic transformations ultimately led to demographic and social changes, resulting in increased political demands and gains in political representation.

Technological Advancements:

The Human Basis of the State: Population, People, and Nation

B) People.

It is the human basis of the state. A first concept may be: the set of individuals who are under state jurisdiction. However, it should distinguish between three concepts: population, people, and nation.

a) Population

When using this term, it is usually done with a mathematical or statistical sense. Population means here the sum of all the individuals who compose the nation. Numeric data is useful to quantify, measure, and classify the human component of the state. From this point of view, it relates to other concepts that also have a political impact, including: census, population of fact and law, birth rate, mortality, etc.

b) People

However, the concept of "people" goes beyond... Continue reading "Understanding the Human Element of the State: Population, People, and Nation" »

Education in Venezuela

Purpose of Education

According to the Organic Education Law, Article No. 3, the fundamental purpose of education is the full development of the individual and the achievement of a healthy, educated, critical individual capable of living in a democratic, fair, and free society.

Education in Venezuela must foster citizen awareness, emphasizing the conservation of Venezuelan sovereignty.

Challenges in Venezuelan Education

While education in Venezuela is effective, it faces challenges in achieving the desired level of citizen awareness.

The Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela outlines requirements for citizens, including:

• Reshaping the Republic to establish a democratic, participatory, and protagonist society.
• Consolidating