Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Homonymy

Three Ways in Which Homonymy Can Arise

1.1 Phonetic Convergence

Under the influence of ordinary phonetic changes, two or more words which once had different forms coincide in the spoken language and sometimes in writing as well. For example, meat and meet.

1.2 Semantic Divergence

When two or more meanings of the same word drift apart to such an extent that there will be no obvious connection between them, polysemy will give place to homonymy and the unity of the word will be destroyed. For example, pupil, meaning ward or scholar, and pupil, meaning the apple of the eye. Another example is collation, meaning comparison or light repast. It is difficult to say in particular cases where polysemy ends and where homonymy begins:

• If two words identical

The Application of Science and Policy

Marxist historical materialism investigates human society without ideological assumptions, based on empirical individuals and the relations established between them.^[7] Unlike approaches that show capitalism as a static system or as a product of natural evolution, historical materialist research reveals its historical character and therefore transitional nature in the development of mankind.

Marx and Engels applied this new conception of history to analyze political and social events of the past and their time. This led to a new wave of socialism, where the taking of sides by communism and proletarian class struggle compounded the scientific study of bourgeois society and the transition from this to a communist... Continue reading "Science, Policy, and Marxist Historical Materialism" »

Peripheral Nationalisms

Throughout the nineteenth century in Spain, intellectual and political groups publicly differentiated the characteristics of the peripheral areas of the peninsula from the traditional state unit. These peculiarities were designated with the concepts of regionalism and nationalism, questioning the territorial structure of the state. The state model adopted by Spanish liberalism was centralized and unitary, continuing the model imposed by the Bourbons in the eighteenth-century Decree of Nueva Planta.

Faced with this standardization, a series of peripheral nationalisms arose, opposing it and defending their peculiarities as a people. They posed a new way to see Spain: diverse and multinational. Their origins lie in a cultural

Power and Politics

Politics is an activity by which people are socially organized, creating and modifying rules of coexistence that seek common objectives for all members of the community. Therefore, politics seeks to understand the ideal of life.

The Concept of Power

Power is the ability to change the behavior of others to impose one's will, even against their resistance. This influence can be exercised because it makes those who obey under threat or has been manipulated.

Levels of Power

• Firstly, power is the individual capacity or the strength we need to act. This is in order to make something.
• Secondly, at the interpersonal level: Power is the ability of someone to change the behavior of another person.

Power can be understood as a tactic or strategy... Continue reading "Understanding Power and Politics in Society" »

Spanish Enlightenment: Context and Characteristics

The spread of Enlightenment ideas in Spain was relatively slow and late, although it presented essentially the same features as elsewhere in Europe. Enlightened thinkers (ilustrados) were always a small minority among the Spanish population, and their actions were often more theoretical than practical. Despite this, they drew attention to significant problems. They cannot be blamed for the absence of a powerful bourgeoisie capable of adopting their ideas.

Characteristic Features of Spanish Enlightenment

The characteristic features of this ideology include:

• Employment of reason and criticism as a method for analyzing and improving social reality.
• Promotion of the national economy, seen as necessary

Article 18: Defining the Coexistence Plan

The Coexistence Plan is part of the School Educational Project (PEC), a document reflecting the center's identity and ideology. It outlines the school's purpose, organizational structure, and educational vision.

The Coexistence Plan details principles, objectives, and actions to enhance school life, focusing on:

• Coexistence among peers
• Educator-learner relationships
• Intercultural coexistence
• Coexistence in gender differences

Plan Elements

• Center characteristics
• Current state of coexistence
• Objectives and actions for achievement
• Operational procedures for coexistence
• Dissemination mechanisms
• Annual review and improvement proposals

Article 1Y 4: Scope and Purpose

This article aims to regulate school life and define... Continue reading "School Coexistence Plan: Principles and Implementation" »

Understanding Linguistic Variation

Speakers of the same language do not all express themselves the same way. Various factors, including spatial/geographic, social, and generational influences, cause significant variety in the use of a common language.

Dialects

Dialects are associated with the users, i.e., individuals or groups of people who speak a language. Varieties include:

• Historical varieties: These develop over time.
• Spatial or geographical varieties: These relate speakers to their territorial origin.
• Social varieties: These are defined by the social groups that use them.

Variety of Style

These variations are associated with specific communicative situations and uses, such as formal, colloquial, or vulgar registers.

Standard Variety

Over time,... Continue reading "Understanding Linguistic Variation and Dialects" »

A recently developed school of thought, known as "human capital," views education strictly as an investment that enables a nation, society, family, or individual to improve their future, their ability to generate profits, and consequently, their welfare.

Spain's Educational Deficit and 19th-Century Reforms

It is clear that Spain entered the contemporary age with a serious deficit of human capital. The education system, in ruins since the 17th century, completely collapsed during the crisis of the early 19th century. Attempts to address this deficiency led to educational initiatives, such as the ultimately ineffective *Economic Societies of Friends of the Country*, private associations created by the upper classes in the 18th century.

In the mid-... Continue reading "Human Capital and Education Reform in Spain" »

Chilean Education Policy: 1980-2010

1980s (Pinochet Era)

Efficiency-oriented policies through market-based measures of decentralization and privatization, in an authoritarian context (marked by teachers' union disruption).

1990s-2005 (Concertación Period)

Policies focused on quality and equity (including 12 years of compulsory schooling) across the state in a democratic context (marked by the creation of the Teachers College).

2006-2009 Reforms

Reform policies focused on institutional and regulatory basics: increasing state involvement without changing parameters of mixed provision and the role of the market.

2009-2010 Developments

• Curriculum flexibility in municipalities.
• Competition between schools under a mixed system of provision (Supportive Public,

Administrative Principles and Their Shortcomings

Herbert Simon critiques the following principles of scientific management:

1. Specialization of labor within the group
2. Arrangement of group members in a hierarchy of authority
3. Limiting the scope of control at any point in the hierarchy to a small number
4. Grouping of workers for control purposes by:
   • (a) Purpose
   • (b) Process
   • (c) Customers
   • (d) Place

These guiding principles, intended to "increase administrative efficiency" according to scientific management, are described by Simon as ambiguous and difficult to prove empirically.

Here, we review each principle and present the reasons Simon provides to support his claim.

Specialization

The principle suggests that any advance in specialization would improve administrative... Continue reading "Administrative Principles: Analysis and Shortcomings" »