Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Comparative Politics

Study and evaluation of similarities and differences between political systems.

State

Political organization, institution for government, possessing sovereignty and territory.

Nation

Group of people united by fundamental characteristics.

Nationalism

Belief by a nation that it can be a state.

Nation-State

Borders coincide with a particular nation.

Territoriality

Unit has a certain geographic perimeter.

Sovereignty

State is supreme within its own borders.

Internal Control

Monopoly on the use of legitimate violence.

External Autonomy

Not subservient to any other state.

De Facto

Empirical.

De Jure

Juridical.

Three Worlds

System of classifying states.

First World

Liberal democracy.

Second World

Communist.

Third World

Not powerful enough to fit in other

G.S. Ghurye (1893–1983): Father of Indian Sociology

• Theory: Caste and Race in India
• Key Ideas:
  • Known as the "Father of Indian Sociology."
  • Studied the caste system, arguing it has both racial and cultural aspects.
  • Described caste as having six characteristics: Segmental Division, Hierarchy, Restrictions on Marriage, Occupational Specialization, Commensality Rules, and Social Disabilities.
  • Analyzed the role of Sanskritization in social mobility.

M.N. Srinivas (1916–1999): Sanskritization and Westernization

• Theory: Sanskritization and Westernization
• Key Ideas:
  • Defined Sanskritization as the process where lower castes adopt upper-caste practices to improve social status.
  • Defined Westernization as the influence of British rule on Indian society, encompassing

Understanding Power in the 21st Century

Power resources can be tangible (military, territory) and intangible (institutions, ideas, values, culture). Power is the ability to combine resources to alter others' behavior to produce preferred outcomes.

Definition of power in the 21st-century information society: The ability to affect others through the co-optive means of framing agendas, persuading, and eliciting positive attraction to obtain preferred outcomes. Attraction depends upon the mind of the perceiver.

Globalization Defined

Globalization is the increasing interconnectedness, interdependence, and integration of economies, societies, cultures, and political systems across the world. It is a multifaceted phenomenon that involves the flow of goods,... Continue reading "Geopolitics and Power Dynamics in the 21st Century" »

Global City Dynamics and Globalization

Global city dynamics lie at the very heart of globalization, shaping the economic, social, political, and cultural forces that define how major urban centers function in an increasingly interconnected world. As globalization accelerates the movement of goods, capital, information, and people across borders, cities have become the central hubs where these flows converge. In this sense, global cities do not just participate in globalization—they actively drive and structure it.

The rise of global cities is directly linked to the transformation of the world economy. In the past, nation-states dominated global processes, but today urban centers such as New York, London, Tokyo, Singapore, and Hong Kong function... Continue reading "Global City Dynamics, Migration, and Sustainability in Globalization" »

Realism: Core Principles in International Relations

• This point of view was predominantly used by political leaders before World War I.
• Human nature is inherently flawed and selfish; individuals prioritize their own interests.
• The only significant actor in International Relations (IR) is the state, and its decisions are paramount.
• IR is characterized by competition, not cooperation, often resulting in a zero-sum game.
• States seek to maximize their power, defined as the capacity to influence other states or people.
• National interests are synonymous with *national security*, guaranteeing the state's own survival.
• Politics and morality are fundamentally incompatible.

Key Authors: Morgenthau, Kennan, Kissinger.

Idealism and the Pursuit of Global Peace

• Peace

B.R. Ambedkar's Economic Criticism of Caste

Ambedkar propounded a powerful economic critique of the caste system, arguing that it was fundamentally inefficient and anti-meritocratic.

1. Caste as a System of Division of Labourers (Not Labour): It divides people based on birth, restricting occupational mobility.
2. Stifling of Competition and Innovation: Fixed occupations prevent talent from flourishing.
3. Denial of Economic Opportunity: Opportunities are restricted to specific caste groups.
4. Caste and the Closed Economy: The system discourages trade and interaction outside the caste group.
5. Opposition to Industrialization and Modernization: Caste structures resist necessary economic changes.
6. Economic Inefficiency: The system is wasteful and suppresses talent.

Establishment of the European Union

This cheat sheet outlines the historical progression and key milestones that led to the formation of the modern European Union.

The Idea of Europe

Key questions regarding European identity and unity have shaped political and cultural debates throughout history.

The Peace of Westphalia (1648)

The Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years’ War and introduced several core principles of international relations:

• Sovereignty over territory and domestic affairs.
• Equality among states.
• Non-intervention in internal matters.
• However, it lacked mechanisms to prevent imperialism.

World Wars and Europeanism

World War I: This conflict deepened national divides but simultaneously encouraged pro-European thinking as a means to ensure... Continue reading "History and Evolution of the European Union" »

Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Father of Modern India

Raja Ram Mohan Roy, known as the Father of Modern India, was the earliest leader of India’s social and intellectual awakening in the 19th century. He fought against major social evils such as:

• Sati
• Child marriage
• Polygamy
• Caste rigidity
• Superstition

He used rational ideas and reinterpretation of ancient texts to drive change. Roy promoted women’s rights, especially widow protection and female education, and strongly supported freedom of speech and the press.

Brahmo Samaj Foundation

In 1828, he founded the Brahmo Samaj, which preached monotheism, rejected idol worship, opposed ritualism, and encouraged moral and spiritual reform. Roy also played an important role in shaping modern education by supporting... Continue reading "Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Lord Bentinck: Social and Administrative Reforms in India" »

EU Treaties and Enlargements: Key Milestones

4th Enlargement — 1995: Austria, Finland, Sweden

4th Enlargement: 1995 — Austria, Finland, Sweden; 15 MS (Member States).

Amsterdam Treaty (signed 1997, entered into force 1999)

Amsterdam: signed 1997 and entered into force 1999. It marked an expansion of the European Community's competences, introducing new policies on employment and anti-discrimination legislation.

• It notably established the Area of Freedom, Security and Justice within the Community pillar, aiming to ensure fundamental rights while enhancing cooperation in areas such as asylum, immigration, and judicial decisions.
• The treaty reinforced human rights protection and extended the ordinary legislative procedure to additional areas.

Nice

European States: Diversity and Characteristics

Europe is divided into 49 countries. Differences between states include:

• Size: Russia is the largest, while micro-states are the smallest.
• Population: Russia also has the largest population.
• Wealth: Germany possesses the most economic power.
• Regional Differences: Western Europe is the most developed zone, while former Soviet Europe (Eastern Europe) is the largest in terms of area.

The European Union: Origins and Purpose

After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged stronger than other European countries. European countries created a continent-wide organization to consolidate peace, prevent wars, and compete collectively against these superpowers. In 1957, six European countries signed... Continue reading "The European Union: Structure, Evolution, and Key Institutions" »