Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Key Linguistic Concepts

• Bilingualism: The routine use of two languages in the same region or by the same person.
• Semantic Field: A set of words related by meaning.
• Connotation: The set of values associated with a term.
• Denotation: The basic semantic features of a word, its core meaning.
• Diglossia: A type of bilingualism where languages have unequal social prestige.
• Statements: The minimum unit of communication, which can be a sentence or a phrase.
• Phonemes: Minimal linguistic units of meaning, representing mental images and sounds.
• Phonetics: The study of the physiological and acoustic aspects of speech sounds.
• Phonology: The study of how phonemes function to distinguish meanings, including intonation.
• Lexical Family: A set of words linked by a shared

Utopian Socialism

In the mid-nineteenth century, thinkers appeared who vindicated and defended the need to carry out social reforms to address resulting inequalities. They even proposed implementations in the production and distribution of wealth. Key figures included Saint-Simon and Fourier. However, the naivety and lack of scientific validity of their projects earned them criticism from Marxists, among others.

Anarchism

This is another philosophical and social current that demanded a radical transformation of society. The name means "without law or authority." Its principal ideologues, Bakunin and Proudhon, rejected all forms of power. They advocated the destruction of the State as the only way to achieve genuinely free, good, and supportive... Continue reading "19th-Century Social Theories: Utopian Socialism, Anarchism, Liberalism, and Materialism" »

The Galician Language in the Late 20th and Early 21st Centuries

During the Spanish transition to democracy, Spain began to be organized territorially into autonomous communities. Galicia was recognized as a "historic community."

With the advent of democracy, the demand for cultural and linguistic diversity in Galicia has increased. The language became the object of study and research to reach a standard. This involved the expurgación of dialectalisms, removing hiperenxebrismos, and adaptation to new environments of use: the city, media, normalization, and standardization.

• 1976: The University Department of Galician-Portuguese was created.
• 1978/1981: Thanks to the Constitution (1978) and the Statute of Autonomy (1981), Galician was recognized as

Economic Integration

Economic integration is the phenomenon of the progressive elimination of economic borders among a group of countries. It occurs in phases:

1. Preferential Agreement: A number of countries grant each other customs advantages not applied to other countries.
2. Free Trade Area: Member states eliminate tariff obstacles but maintain their own tariffs against third parties.
3. Customs Union: A common external tariff is applied to all imports coming from third countries.
4. Common Market: This is a customs union in which there is also a free flow of factors of production.
5. Economic Union: This means a complete common market with coordinated macroeconomic policy and the implementation of common economic policies.
6. Monetary Union: All currencies of

Nietzsche: Historical and Philosophical Context

Historical-Cultural Context

The nineteenth century was marked by dramatic changes caused by the Industrial Revolution and the triumph of capitalism. Growth was due to decreased mortality and increased birth rates arising from greater knowledge of disease. This resulted in theoretical debate, such as the doctrine of Malthus. Population growth led to a shift of population from rural areas to cities.

The Industrial Revolution began in Britain, followed by France and Belgium. Along with this revolution, there was also the Agricultural Revolution, which increased productivity and reduced the need for manpower in the field. The development of the revolution gave rise to two opposing social groups: the... Continue reading "Nietzsche: Historical, Cultural, and Philosophical Context" »

Scientific and Technical Discourse: Genres

Scientific and technical texts are communicated through various channels, by different sources, in diverse social spheres, and with varied intentions.

Oral Channel

• Conference: A public presentation of informative and educational content.
• Discussion: Aims to unify contrasting opinions and reach mutually acceptable conclusions.
• Speech: An informative presentation aimed at specialists.
• Scientific Discourse: A public presentation by an eminent academic institution, specifying an augmentative.

Written Channel

• Scientific Paper: A brief exposure to scientific information with didactic intent, typically published in media.
• Essay: A philosophical or scientific paper addressing a topic from a personal perspective, presenting

Spain's Multilingual Reality

Article 3 of the Spanish Constitution acknowledges the country's multilingual nature, stating that:

1. Castilian (Spanish) is the official language of the State, and all Spaniards have the duty to know it and the right to use it.
2. Other Spanish languages are also official within their respective Autonomous Communities.
3. The richness of Spain's distinct linguistic modalities is a cultural heritage that shall be respected and protected.

Bilingualism in Society

Bilingualism, the proficiency in two languages, can manifest both individually and societally.

Language Contact Dynamics

Language contact situations give rise to phenomena such as code-switching, interferences (including morphosyntactic, phonic, lexical, and orthographic... Continue reading "Spain's Multilingualism: Languages and Standardization" »

TXT 5: Political and Economic Regeneration

• 1. Regenerating Political Life

  The manifesto clearly states the need to eradicate political corruption, which was evident in the economic and financial policies of moderate governments encouraged by Elizabeth II.

• 2. Promoting Progressive Proposals

  The entire text defends the ideology and demands of the progressive sector.

• 3. Respect for the Crown and National Sovereignty

  Its claims do not challenge the Crown or the monarchy itself, as would happen 14 years later. Nor do they undermine the liberal system.

TXT 6: Broadening Rights and Suffrage

• 1. Broad Declaration of Rights and Liberties

  This statement includes rights not covered in previous constitutions, such as freedom of residence, inviolability of mail,

Analysis of Pronunciation Teaching and Remedial Proposals

Pronunciation and spelling are fundamental to verbal communication. Sounds and letters form the surface of oral and written language. Often, pronunciation receives little attention. Few people notice the pronunciation mistakes of politicians, TV contestants, neighbors, or even ourselves, though these may be more serious than misspellings.

In schools, pronunciation is often treated as a minor issue, except in second language instruction. Students are assumed to have mastered sounds by the time they reach middle school, learning through natural language acquisition. Consequently, few pronunciation practices are linked to literacy. Pronunciation is typically addressed only in the early grades.... Continue reading "Improving Spanish Pronunciation: Classroom Analysis and Remedial Strategies" »

Adam Smith: Wealth of Nations and Division of Labor

Adam Smith's work surged in the 18th and 19th centuries. His seminal work, *The Wealth of Nations* (1776), explored the division of labor and its impact on society. Karl Marx drew from Smith, recognizing that specialization increases productivity but also simplifies the complexity of work, potentially leading to worker alienation. Smith was concerned about the inequality of work and argued that the state must intervene to prevent workers from reaching exclusion or self-marginalization.

Max Weber: Alienation, Legitimacy, and Ideal Types

Max Weber was aware of Marx and Smith but held different ideological views. He believed that alienation is a characteristic symptom of progress in modern societies.... Continue reading "Adam Smith, Max Weber, Webb: Key Thinkers on Labor & Society" »