Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Historical materialism is the philosophy of society and history in Marxism. Marx assumed that the knowledge of man, society, and history requires a science whose subject matter, epistemological foundation, and method are radically different from those of the natural sciences. Historical materialism, Marx thought, is the true science of human phenomena (social and historical) and is presented as a scientific theory of the economic or material conditions of society and history.

The main idea of historical materialism is that history is not an accidental sequence of events resulting from the individual action of some influential characters and decisive action or imaginary subjects, like providence, fate, or the spirit of the people (Volkgeist),...

The Constitutional Period (1931)

The Provisional Government agreed to convene Constituent Cortes. In those months, Manuel Azaña, Marcelino Domingo, and Francisco Largo Caballero drafted the first decrees concerning the military, rural areas, and culture. The first conflict arose early: on May 11 and 12, 1931, convents were burned in Madrid and other cities. This incident, coupled with the curtailment of the Church's privileges, deeply incensed important sectors of Catholics and created the conditions for the bishops to move into legal opposition (evidenced by the expulsion of Cardinal Segura and the Church's support for groups like CEDA, Acción Nacional, from 1933 onwards).

The June 1931 elections were held with great civility, with a 70% turnout....

Social Change and Class Society

The New Class Society

During this period, people were differentiated by their merits and work. This led to the emergence of distinct social classes:

The New Ruling Class: The Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie was the upward social group. They acceded to political power, enriched themselves through economic activities, and promoted their ideology. Differences within the bourgeoisie included:

• The Gentry: Lived on their properties.
• Major Industrialists and Traders: Sought to ennoble themselves by buying titles.
• Middle Bourgeoisie: Composed of officials and professionals.
• Petty Bourgeoisie: Included shopkeepers and artisans.

The New Dominated Class: The Proletariat

The proletariat was a social group made up of industrial employees....

B-institutional functions:

1. Recruitment and selection of political elites - Parties share the role of recruitment and training with top bureaucrats, business, or intellectuals. Some countries have a closed list system, where the party bureaucracy is very extensive. Parties do not necessarily select the best, but the most disciplined, those who identify more with partisan ideologies and those who criticize less. This phenomenon of co-option of selecting interests creates a bureaucracy within parties, leading to oligarchization. It is consistent with the interests of party professionals who are paid by work.
2. Organization and conduct of elections - Political parties organize the elections and we elect representatives submitted by the parties. The

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913)

"The linguistic sign does not bind a name with a thing but a concept with a sound-image."

Foundations of Structural Linguistics

Saussure believed that 19th-century linguistics failed to question the fundamental nature and mechanics of language. Consequently, he undertook his own investigation. In his seminal work, Course in General Linguistics, he proposed moving beyond the traditional philological perspective to analyze language through its internal structure.

The Linguistic Sign

Saussure argued that all words consist of two components:

• Signifier: The material component (the acoustic image).
• Signified: The mental component (the concept or idea represented).

Together, the signifier and the signified constitute the...

The Legacy of Henry Ford's Mass Production

The mass production system pioneered by Henry Ford defined the automotive industry for 50 years, influencing almost all industrial activities across Europe and North America.

We will examine some of its most important features, focusing on labor and organizational changes.

Key Features of Fordism

• Workforce
• Organization
• Tools
• Products

Workforce Transformation

The implementation of the assembly line fundamentally altered the labor force:

• Workers on the lines became as interchangeable as the cars they produced.
• Skilled labor required for assembly and adjustment of parts was exchanged for less skilled labor positioned along the assembly line.
• This led to the emergence of production engineers and industrial engineers,

Major Consequences of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution fundamentally changed the social, economic, political, and lifestyle structures of mankind, driven by the invention and implementation of large-scale machinery. Below are the key impacts:

Economic Impacts

• Increased work performance and reduced production costs, leading to significant wealth growth in industrialized nations.
• Development and accumulation of large capital companies and corporations.
• Design, development, and perfection of communication and transportation means, facilitating international exchange.
• Creation of modern financial institutions, including chambers of commerce, insurance companies, and banks.
• Development of the credit income system and the emergence of

Political System and Social Foundations

Introduction to the Bourbon Restoration

During the Sexenio Revolucionario, the Conservative politician Antonio Cánovas del Castillo prepared the restoration of the monarchy in the person of Alfonso XII. Cánovas convinced Queen Isabella II to abdicate her rights to the throne in favor of her son. He created a monarchist party and, finally, on December 1, 1874, drafted the Manifesto of Sandhurst. In this document, Prince Alfonso promised that, if named King of Spain, he would implement a parliamentary constitutional regime and a stable order based on patriotism and doctrinaire liberalism.

Cánovas and the Constitution of 1876

During the revolutionary period, Cánovas banked on the idea of the restoration...

Constitution of 1812 (Cádiz)

C.1812 (Cádiz) eliminates the Cortes' separation powers, establishes a constitutional monarchy, asserts national sovereignty, and provides for the elimination of special forums.

Doctrinaire Liberalism

Doctrinaire liberalism: constitutional monarchy with shared sovereignty; restriction of political participation (direct censitary suffrage); limitation of individual rights; state of Catholicism. Includes moderate and progressive currents.

Mendizábal Reforms

Mendizábal Reforms: restoration of science and provincial. Suppression of all convents; disentailment of the Church; redemption of the fifth (get rid of the military).

Constitution of 1837 (Estatuto of 1837)

C.1837 (Elizabethan) shared sovereignty between the king...

Core Management Functions

Planning

Effective planning involves anticipating and preparing in two key ways. It requires creating a detailed plan or project outlining actions for the short, medium, and long term. For a project's viability, it must be meticulously programmed, considering the cost of actions and budgeting accordingly.

Organizing

Organizing involves establishing clear organizational structures. Authority and responsibility are delegated by defining relationships across all company levels.

Implementation

Implementation requires constant decision-making and effective communication of those decisions.

Coordination

Coordination focuses on materializing resources and aligning efforts, ensuring all functions work in concert to achieve common...