Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

European Language Families

Slavic Languages

South Slavic:

• Slovenian
• Croatian
• Bosnian
• Serbian
• Bulgarian
• Macedonian
• Old Church Slavonic (Extinct)

Note: These languages were formerly grouped under Yugoslavia. Montenegrin is a sub-national variety.

East Slavic:

• Russian
• Belarusian
• Ukrainian
• Rusyn

Note: Rusyn and Ruthenian are considered sub-national varieties. The terms "Great Russian" and "Little Russian" (referring to Ukrainian) are extinct and considered offensive, as they imply Ukrainian language subordination.

West Slavic:

• Polish
• Czech
• Slovak
• Sorbian
• Kashubian
• Polabian (Extinct)

Note: Kashubian and Lachian are considered sub-national varieties. Slovincian is another extinct West Slavic language.

Germanic Languages

East Germanic:

• Gothic (Extinct)

North Germanic:

• Danish
• Swedish
• Norwegian
• Icelandic
• Faroese

West

Q.1. We All Have Multiple Identities: Exploring Social Groups

Statement: “We all have more than one identity and can belong to more than one social group.”

Discussion: This statement rings true in our diverse world. Let's consider a few examples:

• Individuals belonging to the same religion might feel distant from others within that religion due to differences in caste or sect.
• Conversely, people from different religions might find common ground and closeness through shared caste affiliations.
• Even within families, economic disparities can create rifts, as seen in strained relationships between wealthy and less affluent relatives.

Example: Athletes Carlos and Smith, both Afro-American, shared a racial identity that distinguished them from their... Continue reading "Understanding Social Identities and Differences: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Foundational US Political Concepts

Limited Government

The principle that government power is restricted, positing that certain things are out of the government's boundaries because of citizens' natural rights.

Colonial Charters

Documents granted to American colonies by English kings establishing governments; they fostered the American tradition of written constitutions.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, drafted by James Madison, which place limitations on government and protect natural rights. Most state constitutions have a version of this.

Commonwealth

Although four states call themselves commonwealths (Pennsylvania, Virginia, Massachusetts, and Kentucky), the term refers to any self-governing community and currently

Social Divisions: Not Just Big Countries Like India?

It is not correct to say that social divisions exist only in big countries like India. We can take the example of Belgium. The ethnic composition of this small country is very complex. Of the country’s total population, 59% live in the Flemish region and speak the Dutch language. Another 40% live in the Wallonia region and speak French. The remaining 1% of Belgians speak German. In the capital city, Brussels, 80% of people speak French while 20% are Dutch-speaking.

Multiple Identities in Different Contexts Explained

The statement "We have different identities in different contexts" can be supported by the following facts:

• It is common for people belonging to the same religion to feel that they

Why Politics and Social Divisions Should Not Mix

It is true that politics and social divisions should not be allowed to mix, as it often leads to negative results. This is particularly evident when caste begins to influence politics.

• Each caste group attempts to expand by incorporating neighbouring castes or subcastes that were previously excluded. This leads to the emergence of new caste groupings, such as backward and forward castes. This trend is unhealthy for democracy and can result in tensions, conflicts, and even violence. It also diverts attention from critical issues like poverty, development, and corruption.
• Political parties and candidates appeal to caste sentiment to garner support during elections. Some parties are known to favour

Groupthink: Seek Agreement and Effective Leadership

Reasons for groupthink include being out of touch, lack of order and resources, and being overruled. Symptoms of groupthink include omnipotence, closed-mindedness, and pressure toward uniformity.

Situational Leadership

Situational leadership suggests that there is no specific best style, but rather the best style is the one adapted to the situation at hand. One way of situational leadership is the leader's flexibility in adapting their behaviors to the demands of the situation. Another way is the leader's ability to read a situation and select the appropriate behaviors for that specific circumstance. An example of situational leadership is Hersey and Blanchard's model, which focuses on the leader'... Continue reading "Groupthink: Seeking Agreement and Effective Leadership" »

1. What force pulled a nebula inward to make our solar system? Gravity

2. How much of the solar nebula was pulled into the sun (percentage)? 99%

3. How were the planets made from the leftover gas and dust? The gas & dust contracted into planetesimals, which collided, merged and formed protoplanets. The protoplanets accumulated more rocks until they became planets.

4. How did Earth get its layers? Differentiation; the most dense matter moved to the center, lighter masses were pushed up.

5. Which gases made up Earth’s earliest atmosphere? What happened to them? Hydrogen and helium; they floated off into space because the Earth’s gravity was not strong enough to hold them down.

6. What gases were next to fill the atmosphere? Where did they

Climate Change: Causes, Impacts and Actions to Take

Climate change is one of the greatest environmental threats facing the planet. I think that the Earth is definitely experiencing climate change and that human action is mostly responsible for it.

We only need to take a look at newspapers to read about the consequences of global warming on Earth. Increases in ocean temperature and the Earth’s surface temperature, widespread melting of snow and ice, and the rising of sea level are some pieces of evidence regarding climate change. In my opinion, we should not be surprised by these effects because we are badly ill-treating our planet by deforestation, the use of aerosols, and the burning of fossil fuels.

To conclude, I strongly believe that irreversible

Gender Equality and Cultural Change: A Global Analysis

(Based on research by Inglehart and Norris)

Theoretical Frameworks of Gender and Politics

The Orthodox Account of Female Conservatism

• Historically, it was believed that when women gained the right to vote, a distinctive "women's vote" would emerge, with women voting as a bloc across various issues.
• While gender differences in voting were relatively small, women were more likely to support center-right parties in Western Europe and the United States. This phenomenon was termed the Traditional Gender Gap.

Theories of Gender Dealignment

• Later voting studies indicated that the old pattern was no longer relevant. Outcomes were shown to rely more on specific political circumstances than on gender. For