Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Secondary education

The Nature of Scientific Knowledge

Knowledge of science is rational, systematic, accurate, verifiable, and therefore fallible. It is the systematically ordered body of knowledge about the universe, obtained by observation and reasoning, allowing the deduction of general laws and principles.

The sciences are divided by their object or subject of study into three categories: formal sciences, natural sciences, and humanities.

Formal Sciences

Formal sciences are based on logical reasoning and work with ideas created by the human mind. Their primary method is the logical-deductive method. This category includes mathematics, sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, and philosophy.

Key Properties of Formal Sciences:

• Ideal Objects: The subjects of

Renaissance Features

Architecture during the Renaissance appeared in three distinct styles:

• Plateresque: Richly decorated facades imitating the work of silversmiths (e.g., Salamanca).
• Purism: A cleaner decorative style (e.g., Palace of Charles V).
• Herrerian: Characterized by austerity and a lack of decoration (e.g., Monastery of San Lorenzo).

Renaissance Sculpture and Painting

Sculpture focused on religious subjects, utilizing polychrome wood. Notable figures include El Greco and Berruguete. Painting is highlighted by elongated figures that convey spirituality, filled with rich color.

Characteristics of the Baroque

Baroque architecture utilized octagonal, elliptical, Greek cross, and Latin cross floor plans. Walls were often curved, pediments were...

Moment 1: The Discovery of Sophie

David was walking on his farm when he suddenly encountered a girl. She had slid down a mountain of sand, and her foot became caught on some rocks. David helped pull her foot free and was shocked to see that she had six fingers. He took her home, and her parents promised not to tell anybody.

Moment 2: The Dream of the Knife

David was injured by a piece of wood and began to bleed. He remarked that he needed three hands to bandage the wound, which incited his father's anger and led to punishment. That night, he lay in bed with many questions in his head: "I didn't do anything wrong. Why did Father punish me? He doesn’t want a third hand, but is it so bad to say it, or even to think about it? What if I had a third...

• ALFA: First flag of the International Code of Signals. On a bugle, blue and white, raised in isolation, it means: "I have a submerged diver; keep well away at low speed."
• BRAVO: Second flag of the International Code of Signals. It is a red horn and, raised in isolation, means: "I am loading, unloading, or carrying explosives." or "I carry flammable liquids."
• CHARLIE: Third letter of the International Code of Signals, represented by a square flag with five horizontal stripes (blue, white, red, white, and blue). Hoisted in isolation, it means: "Yes" or "Affirmative."
• DELTA: Fourth flag of the International Code of Signals. It's a square with three horizontal stripes (yellow, blue, and yellow). Hoisted singly, it means: "Keep clear of me; I am maneuvering

1. The Crown of Castile

1.1 The Castilian Reconquista

The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 marked Christian superiority against Muslims and led to the reconquest of Andalusia. Ferdinand III took Seville, Jaén, and the city of Cordoba. Murcia was conquered by Alfonso X the Wise, who ensured fairness of the proceedings.

1.2 Control of the Strait of Gibraltar in the 13th Century

The Marinids crossed the Strait and attacked Christians. Alfonso XI defeated them at the Battle of Salado, securing Castilian control of the Strait of Gibraltar. This victory initiated expeditions to the Canary Islands.

1.3 Government of Castile

Ferdinand III achieved the union of Castile and León, creating a huge area where the king was considered sovereign by the grace...

Spain: Rural and Urban Settlements

Rural Settlement Types

• The dispersed settlement is typical of the northern peninsula.
• The predominant type of settlement in rural areas of the peninsula is concentrated.

Spanish Rural Houses

• Stone houses (predominantly in the mountainous periphery).
• Mud houses (interior peninsular, Valencia, and Murcia orchards).
• Buildings of mixed wood (wood, stone, or clay) are in rural areas of the Basque Country, the Central System, and the Iberian System.

Transformations in the Rural World

• Rural mountainous interiors of the peninsula were affected by the rural exodus.
• Rural communities located in coastal areas experienced a radical transformation.
• Rural populations close to large urban cities have taken office.

Urban Settlement in

Chapter 1

Ben Norton loves superheroes and comics. He has seen all the superhero films and read all the superhero books. He is also a superhero in his town: he is Banana Boy. He has a banana costume that gives him superpowers. However, in his town, he feels like a nobody because nothing exciting ever happens. The Banana Boy costume used to be an old fancy dress costume from school. When he put the costume on, he gained superpowers, and nobody knew who he was.

It was the first day of the school holidays, and Ben wanted to save the world, but the world didn't seem to need saving. Ben dreamt that he was saving the town from giant pieces of falling fruit. People were stuck in sticky juice, strawberries fell from the sky… it was complete chaos....

According to Bill Nichols, the four key elements that form the basis of documentary are: indexical documentation (shared with scientific film and the cinema of attractions), poetic experimentation, narrative storytelling, and rhetorical oratory.

Poetic Experimentation in Documentary

Poetic experimentation arises in cinema from the union between film and the modernist avant-gardes that flourished in the early 20th century. This plays a vital part in the emergence of the documentary voice. This feature is not present in the Cinema of Attractions or scientific images. Examples of poetic filmmaking include Luis Buñuel (Un Chien Andalou) and Abel Gance (La Roue). The filmmaker's way of seeing things was more important than what the camera was showing....

Raw Materials — Natural Raw Materials (1.1)

To develop an industrial product, raw materials are needed: natural raw materials. These raw materials are found in nature and, when properly processed in industries, become usable products. The natural raw materials can be classified into animal, vegetable, and mineral materials.

Raw Materials of Animal Origin

Raw materials of animal origin such as wool or fur come from livestock and are used in the textile industry to make, for example, clothing. Fish is also a commodity, used to make preserves, oils, and fishmeal.

Vegetable Raw Materials

Vegetable raw materials can be agricultural products like cotton used to make textiles, or forest products such as wood for furniture, or rubber used in tires.

Mineral

Wilfred Owen's Disabled: A Poetic Analysis

"Disabled" is a potent and strong poem, mainly because of the style and structure that Wilfred Owen utilized. Harsh words are used subtly to emphasize the meaning behind the poem: the man is wearing a "ghastly suit of grey," showing his morbid and depressed state of mind. Sleep "mothers" him from the laughter and noises of young boys, suggesting that he no longer finds the pleasures of life worth living for and prefers the temporary respite sleep provides.

Regret and Vanity

He regrets "throwing" away his knees, suggesting—and later confirming—that the ideas and inspirations behind joining the war were not as patriotic or loyal as they should have been; his vanity has now left him a cripple. The girls...