Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Secondary education

Function Definition

A function definition in C++ consists of the statements that constitute a function. It includes:

• Name: The identifier of the function.
• Parameter List: Variables enclosed in parentheses that hold values passed to the function.
• Body: Statements within curly braces that perform the function's task.
• Return Type: The data type of the value the function returns (e.g., int, double, void if no value is returned).

Function Header

The function header declares the function. It consists of:

• Return Type
• Name
• Parameter List

For example: void evenOrOdd(int num). Note that there is no semicolon at the end of the header.

Function Return Type

• If a function returns a value, the return type must be specified (e.g., int main()).
• If a function doesn't return

C++ Loops: While, Do-While, and For

While Loop Format

while (condition)
{
    statements(s);
}

How While Loop Works

If the condition is true, the statement(s) are evaluated again. If false, the loop is exited.

While Loop Example

int val = 5;
while (val >= 0)
{
    cout << val << " ";
    val = val - 1;
}

A while loop is a pretest loop (the condition is evaluated before the loop executes).

• If the condition is initially false, the statement(s) in the body of the loop are never executed.
• If the condition is initially true, the statement(s) in the body will continue to be executed until the condition becomes false.

The loop must contain code to allow the condition to eventually become false so the loop can be exited. Otherwise, you have... Continue reading "C++ Loops and File Handling: A Deep Dive" »

Procurement: Adquirir

Stuff: Cosas

Staff: Personal

Stuffed: Relleno de

Parcels: Paquetes

Warehouse: Depósito

Freight Forward: Flete especializado

Tare Weight: Peso de tara

Internal Length: Longitud interna

Internal Height: Altura interna

Payload: Carga útil

Width: Anchura

Gross Weight: Peso bruto

Foreign Currency: Moneda extranjera

Overseas Markets: Mercados internacionales

Subsidiaries: Filiales

Exchange rate: Tasa de cambio

Diferencias entre active and passive voice:

Active: We use this room for our guests

Passive: This room is used for our guests

Active: Nikon makes the best cameras

Passive: The best cameras are made by Nikon

Must, Mustn't and Needn't

A) If/we/you/they/he/she/it + must

B) Use must when you think it is necessary to do something. Ejemplo: The windows... Continue reading "Procurement and Stuff: Understanding Terms and Grammar" »

Electricity and Atoms

Electricity is an electric charge. But there is much more behind than the simple statement:

• Where do the charges come from?
• How do we move them? Where do they move?
• How does an electric charge cause mechanical movement or invent things?

Atoms and Charge

To understand it we start with atoms, one of the basic blocks of life and matter. An atom is three different particles: electrons, protons and neutrons. Each atom has a central nucleus, where protons and neutrons are attached. Around the nucleus there is a group of electrons in orbit. The number defines which chemical element the atom represents. This set is called the atom's atomic number. Electrons are the operation of electricity In its most stable and balanced state, an atom... Continue reading "Understanding Electricity: Atoms, Charge, and Flow" »

Charles Darwin and the Discovery of Natural Selection

Charles Darwin made the groundbreaking discovery of natural selection. He observed that organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those traits to future generations.

Artificial Selection: Shaping Outcomes through Human Intervention

Artificial selection involves deliberately pairing two organisms to produce desired traits in their offspring.

Gene Flow: The Transfer of Genes between Populations

Gene flow occurs when genes are transferred from one population to another through migration and mating.

Genetic Drift: Changes in Gene Frequency within a Population

Genetic drift refers to the random change in the frequency of a gene within a population. Over time,... Continue reading "Understanding the Mechanisms of Evolution: Natural Selection and More" »

Ancien Regime

The Ancien Regime was a social and political system characterized by an absolute monarchy, a stratified society, and an economic system based on agrarian subsistence. Religion held significant influence during this period.

Louis XIV

King Louis XIV of France, a member of the Bourbon dynasty, was a staunch supporter of absolute monarchy. He centralized legislative, executive, and judicial powers under his rule.

The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment, an intellectual movement that emerged spontaneously in 18th-century France, championed several key ideas:

• Trust in reason
• Faith in progress
• Belief in the power of education
• Nature as a guide for morality
• Criticism of the Ancien Regime, particularly its lack of separation of powers

The movement spread... Continue reading "The Age of Enlightenment and Revolutions: A Historical Overview" »

Q#6.3: Define (i) Crystal lattice (ii) Unit Cell.

Ans.(i) Crystal Lattice.

A particular three-dimensional arrangement of particles (atoms, ions, molecules) in a crystal is called a crystal lattice.

In a crystal lattice, particles are located at definite positions in space. These positions are represented by points in a crystal and are called lattice points or lattice sites. This arrangement is called a crystal lattice or space lattice. A crystal lattice actually shows the shape of a crystal.

(ii) Unit Cell.

The smallest geometrical portion of the crystal which is used to build up the whole crystal. OR

If is the smallest portion of a crystal lattice which includes all the positions of each type of particle in the crystal. For example, a cubic crystal... Continue reading "Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell" »

Modal certainty: will, must, be bound to

Assumption or prediction: will

Logical necessity: must

Probability or ‘reasonable inference’: should, ought

Extrinsic possibility: may, might, could

Summary of extrinsic modal

He will be there by now. (assumption/prediction based on experience or common sense)

I shall probably be back before you (prediction)

He must be there by now. (logical necessity, deduction based on evidence)

He can’t be there yet. (logical necessity negated)

He’s bound to be there. (modal certainty + inevitability)

He has to be there by now. (logical necessity, objective)

He’s likely to be there by now. (probability)

He should be there by now. (reasonable inference based on deduction)

He could be there by now. (tentative possibility)... Continue reading "Modal Certainty, Probability, and Obligation: Understanding Modal Verbs" »

Ethical Principles in Research

The Belmont Report

The Belmont Report summarizes ethical principles and guidelines for research involving human subjects. Three core principles are identified: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice. Three primary areas of application are also stated: informed consent, assessment of risks and benefits, and selection of subjects.

Animal Welfare Act

The Animal Welfare Act requires that minimum standards of care and treatment be provided for certain animals bred for commercial sale, used in research, transported commercially, or exhibited to the public.

Respect for Persons

Respect for persons involves protecting the autonomy of all people, treating them with courtesy and respect, and allowing for informed consent.... Continue reading "Ethical Research: Principles, Practices, and Measurement" »