Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Secondary education

Matter and Energy

Matter

• Atoms and molecules
• Everything that has mass and volume
• Law of Conservation of Matter: Matter is neither created nor destroyed, it only transforms.

Energy

• Light, chemical, and heat
• Ability to perform work
• Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy is neither created nor destroyed, it only transforms.
• Second Law of Thermodynamics: Entropy tends to increase in the universe.

Cycles of Matter

We can study matter by the path of the atoms and molecules that constitute it. We consider that each trophic level is a compartment, through which the atoms pass.

Energy Flows

• Energy passes from one level or compartment to another, through trophic networks.
• In each step, a significant part of energy is lost as heat or entropy.
• Energy cycles are not closed

Absolutism in Europe: The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies

Beginning in the late 15th century, European monarchs began consolidating power, gradually wresting it from traditional sources of authority like the nobility, the Church, and city-states. This trend, known as the rise of authoritarian monarchies, continued throughout the 16th century.

The 17th Century: The Zenith of Absolute Rule

The 17th century witnessed the culmination of this power shift, with monarchs reaching the pinnacle of their authority. This period marked the emergence of absolutism, a political system where the king embodied the ultimate source and wielder of all political power.

Philosophical Justifications for Absolute Power

Several prominent thinkers sought to legitimize... Continue reading "Absolutism in Europe: From Authoritarian Monarchies to the Divine Right of Kings" »

Effective Complaint Letters & Emails

Dear ________________,

Introduction

Choose one of the following opening statements:

• I am writing to complain about _________________.
• I am writing this letter/email because I would like to take this opportunity to express my __________ / opinion about _________________________.
• I am writing / We are writing this email/letter to express my/our agreement / disagreement _____________.

Body

Use different paragraphs and linkers to connect your ideas. Consider using the following:

• First of all,
• Apart from that,
• As well as that,
• Moreover,
• So,
• It is important to mention that,
• Besides,
• According to,
• Whereas,
• In fact,
• However,
• Due to,
• On the other hand,
• Finally,
• That is to say,
• Concerning,
• What's more,
• For instance,
• For example,
• Such as…

Conclusion

Invertebrate Reproduction

Porifera (Sponges)

They perform both types of reproduction:

• Asexual Reproduction: A small piece of sponge breaks off, anchors to a surface, and regenerates into a complete organism.
• Sexual Reproduction: This requires two individuals of opposite sex. They form sexual cells (sperm and ovum) that join together and produce a larva. The larva then anchors to a surface and grows, forming a new individual.

Polyps

They reproduce both asexually and sexually:

• Asexual Reproduction: A small bud forms and remains attached as it grows. It separates from the parent organism only when mature and then anchors to a surface.
• Sexual Reproduction: This requires two individuals of opposite sex. They form sexual cells (sperm and ovum) that join

Government Economic Policies

1) Economic growth: the government will always want the economy to grow. They can encourage growth through helping private business to grow, through low business taxes or through government involvement in growth sectors such as new high tech industries.

2) Prices: the government will want to make sure that the general level of prices in the economy is effectively managed. Prices need to rise in a relatively slow and predictable way so that future contracts can be made where both sides know the value of what they pay or receive. Government policies to control inflation might include reducing spending or raising taxes when prices start to rise.

3) Income distribution: all economies are characterized by inequalities in... Continue reading "Government Economic Policies and Financial Instruments" »

Food Preservation Techniques

Traditional Preservation Methods (TT)

• Curing: Addition of salt to preserve food.
• Cooling: A process of removing heat to slow spoilage.
• Heating: Heating food to temperatures sufficient to kill microorganisms.
• Canning: Cooking food and sealing it in sterilized cans.
• Fermentation: The process of converting carbohydrates to alcohol or organic acids using microorganisms.

Industrial and Modern Techniques (MIT)

• Pasteurization: A process that kills microorganisms in food and drink using high temperatures.
• Vacuum Packing: A method of packaging that removes air from the package prior to sealing.
• Artificial Food Additives: Substances added to products to prevent decomposition.
• Biopreservation: The use of natural or controlled microorganisms

Global Colonial Powers and Their Influence

United Kingdom

Trade Routes and Territories

• Gibraltar
• Malta
• Suez Canal
• Singapore
• Maldives

African Influence

• Egypt
• Kenya
• Nigeria
• South Africa

Pacific Influence

• Australia
• New Zealand

Asian Influence

• India
• Malaysia
• Myanmar (Burma)

American Influence

• Canada
• Caribbean

France

African Influence

• Maghreb: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia
• Sub-Saharan Africa: Senegal, Madagascar, Guinea

Asian Influence

• Cambodia
• Vietnam
• Laos

Germany

African Influence

• Namibia
• Tanzania

Oceanian Influence

• Marquesas Islands
• Caroline Islands
• Mariana Islands

Netherlands

• Indonesia
• Suriname
• Dutch Antilles

Portugal

African Influence

• Angola
• Mozambique

Asian Influence

• Macau

Belgium

• Congo

Italy

• Libya
• Somalia

United States of America

• Hawaii
• Puerto Rico
• Caribbean

Japan

• Korea
• Taiwan

Spain

• Morocco
• Western Sahara

Key

Romantic Period

1. What is a Symphonic Poem?

A symphonic poem is a symphonic musical form consisting of only one movement.

2. When Was the Romantic Period in Music?

The Romantic period in music occurred in the 19th century.

3. What Are the Characteristics of the Romantic Period?

• Expressive melodies
• More freedom in the structure of melodies
• Introduction of leitmotiv
• Musical contrast creating expressive melodies
• Birth of programme music

4. What Type of Romantic Vocal Music Was Based on Mythology?

German Opera

5. What Were the Main Vocal Forms of the Romantic Period?

• German lied
• Italian opera
• German opera

6. The Romantic Symphony

The Romantic symphony has various movements that are not based on a structural form like the Classical symphonies. Instead, it is developed... Continue reading "A Comprehensive Guide to Music Periods: Romanticism, Classicism, and 20th Century" »

Nazi Racial Ideology and Early Persecution

Defining the "Aryan Race" and "Sub-Humans"

Adolf Hitler propagated the belief that the "Aryan race" represented the ideal human form: blond hair, blue eyes, tall, and athletic. Conversely, he declared that Jewish people and Roma (often referred to as "Gypsies") were "sub-human" and undeserving of life.

The 1933 Sterilization Law

The Nazi regime swiftly implemented its discriminatory policies. In 1933, the Sterilization Law was passed, authorizing the forced sterilization of individuals deemed to have hereditary illnesses, such as mental disabilities. This horrific practice also extended to "tramps" and beggars. It is believed that approximately 700,000 people were forcibly sterilized under this law.

Expansion