Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Secondary education

How Did Castile Evolve?

Castile's Rise

Under the Caliphate of Cordoba, the Muslims attacked Leon. At the same time, Castile became Muslim independent. Castile provided defense against attacks from the valley of the River Ebro. It was divided into counties under the Count Fernan Gonzalez (930–970).

Leon began to decline at the end of the 10th century. This increased the power of the counts of the kings of Castile and Navarre. In 1035, Castile became an independent kingdom.

The Pyrenean Region

The Pyrenean region formed the Spanish March within the Carolingian Empire. In the 9th century, the Carolingian Empire dissolved. Three different independent regions were formed: Navarre, Aragon, and the Catalan counties.

The Kingdom of Navarre

From the 10th... Continue reading "Evolution of Castile and Early Christian Kingdoms' Art" »

Environmental Vocabulary

Smoke

Humo

Landfill

Vertedero

Toxic Waste

Residuos Tóxicos

Litter

Basura

Oil Spill

Chapapote

Exhaust Fumes

Tubos de Escape

Land Pollution

Tierra Contaminada

Pollutants

Contaminantes

Rubbish

Basura

Chemicals

Productos Químicos

Ecological Disaster

Desastre Ecológico

Deforestation

Deforestación

Damage

Dañar

Care About

Preocuparse

Harm

Dañar / Perjudicar

English Future Tenses

Future Simple

Affirmative

Subject + will + base form of the verb

Negative

Subject + will not / won't + base form of the verb

Interrogative

Will + subject + base form of the verb?

Uses

• To make predictions or announce future facts.
• To talk about a scheduled event.
• To express a sudden decision, something decided while speaking.

Be Going To

Affirmative

Subject + to be + going to + base form... Continue reading "Barcelona's Urban Dynamics: Language and Environmental Insights" »

Clasificación de las palabras

Según su significado

• Sustantivos: nombran objetos, seres o ideas (ej. libro, árbol, bondad).
• Adjetivos: expresan cualidades (ej. pequeño, frondoso, verde).
• Verbos: establecen acciones, estados o procesos (ej. acompañar, ser, madurar).
• Adverbios: indican circunstancias de lugar, tiempo, modo, etc. (ej. aquí, ahora, lentamente).

Según su forma

• Variables: cambian su forma (ej. ciudad/ciudades, nadaba/nadábamos).
• Invariables: no cambian de forma (ej. por, pero, además).
• Simples: formadas por un solo monema (ej. agua, nube, y, por).
• Compuestas: formadas por más de un lexema (ej. lavaplatos, parachoques).
• Primitivas: no contienen ningún morfema derivativo (ej. casa, perro).
• Derivadas: contienen prefijos, infijos o sufijos

*UNIT.5: *Vocabulary: Paint (pintar), Draw (dibujar), Sketch (boceto), Sculpt (escultura), Sew (coser), Decorate (decorar), Create (crear), Recycle (reciclar), Display (exponer), Portrait (retrato), Exhibition (exhibición), Masterpiece (obra maestra), Wood (madera), Glass (cristal), Cloth (tela), Dress (vestido/vestirse), Write (escribir), Fortunately (afortunadamente), Possible (posible), Expensive (caro), Hear (oir), Start (empezar), Close (cerrar), Eat (comer), Travel (viajar), Incident (hecho), Discard (tirar la basura). *Words To Know.1: Obviously (obviamente), Wrapping (envoltorio), Host (ofrecer), Supposed (suponer (que)), Worth (merecer la pena), Spot (reconocer). *Words To Know.2: Waste (desperdiciar/residuo), Hubcap (tapacubos),... Continue reading "Lengu te,a" »

Understanding Earth's Atmosphere

Atmospheric Composition Evolution

Primitive Atmosphere: Composed of water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia, methane, and other oxides, but notably *no oxygen*.

Present Atmosphere: Consists of approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% carbon dioxide, water vapor, and trace gases like argon. The ozone layer later formed from oxygen.

Atmospheric Layers (In Order)

• Ionosphere: Temperature around 1,000 ºC.
• Mesosphere: Approximately 40 km thick.
• Stratosphere: Approximately 30 km thick. Temperature increases from 0 ºC at its upper limit to 70 ºC at its lower limit (Note: The original text stated an increase *to* 0ºC, which is inconsistent with standard models; this reflects the general structure).
• Troposphere:

Structure of the Plasma Membrane

Membrane Amphipathic Properties

The plasma membrane is amphipathic:

• Fatty acid tails are hydrophobic (repel water).
• Phosphate head groups are hydrophilic (attract water).

Transport Through the Membrane

Factors Affecting Transport

• The concentration of substances.
• The type of molecules.

Transport Mechanisms

Based on these factors, transport can occur by three phenomena:

• Passive transport
• Active transport
• Vesicle-mediated transport

Passive Transport

In passive transport, molecules move down their concentration gradient: from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. The cell does not expend energy; the process occurs spontaneously.

Types of Passive Transport

• Simple diffusion
• Osmosis
• Facilitated diffusion

Simple

Nutrition, Mobility and Cell Characteristics

Nutrition

Nutrition: Variety — plants (autotrophs), animals (heterotrophs).

Mobility

Mobility: Variety — plants (immobile), animals (mobile).

Growth

Growth: Plants (often indeterminate / unlimited), animals (typically determinate / limited).

Cellular Coverings

Cell coverings: Plants: cell wall and cell membrane; Animals: plasma membrane.

Similarities of Living Beings

Similarities: assimilation, sensitivity, autoregulation and reproduction.

Cell Composition and Organelles

Cell composition: Life composed of abundant protoplasm; cells possess a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and a nuclear membrane (karyotheca) with a nucleus.

There are a variety of structures in the cytoplasm (organelles): ribosomes, endoplasmic

.All material objects are composed of atoms. An atom consists of a nucleus and a vast region of space outside the nucleus. Electrons are present in the region of space outside the nuclues. Electrons are often removed from and a dded to an atom by normal everyday occurrences. The nucleus contains positively-chargedd protons and nuetral neutrons. These prtons and nuentrons are not removable or disturbable by usual everyday methods. One sure truth of this unit is that the porotn and neutron will remain within the nucleus of the atom.
Methods of charging:-friction:Having an excess of electrons thr rubber ballon is charged negatively.The shortage of electrons on the animal fur leaves it with a positive charge.-Induction: is a very common method of... Continue reading "Basic Principles of Electricity and Atomic Physics" »