Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Secondary education

Nucleic Acid Structure and Function

• Nucleoside: A part of a nucleotide made up of one sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and one nitrogenous base (pyrimidine or purine) joined together by N-glycosidic bonds.
• Nucleotide: Simple molecules that form large molecules called nucleic acids. It is formed by a nitrogenous base, sugar, and three phosphate groups.
• Chromatin: Bundles of DNA and proteins; the normal state of the genetic material during interphase.
• Chromosome: Structures formed by the condensation of chromatin that appear when the cell is about to divide.
• Centromere: A bond that joins two sister chromatids; it's where the microtubules are attached to the chromosome during the division process.
• Telomere: The end of the arms of a chromosome, which prevents

Tragic Climax: Romeo and Juliet's Final Moments

This film clip depicts the heart-wrenching final moments of two young lovers. The narrative unfolds as Juliet lies in bed, feigning her death. Overcome with grief, Romeo decides to poison himself to end his suffering.

Subsequently, when Juliet awakens from her feigned death and discovers her beloved Romeo dead, she tragically takes her own life by stabbing herself.

Audio Cues Enhancing the Tragedy

The sound design plays a crucial role in conveying the emotional intensity of the scene:

• Initially, we hear Romeo's cries and the sounds of him caressing and kissing his beloved Juliet.
• As Romeo ingests the poison, sounds of his pain are audible.
• Finally, when Juliet awakens to find Romeo dead, her cries of

World War II

WW2 (1939-1945) was a vast conflict between Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) and Allied Powers (Britain, USSR, France, USA). Consequences:

• Impact of WW1: Germany lost territory and economy was damaged by the need to pay war reparations.
• Rise of fascism and nationalism: Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, many feared a communist revolution.
• Weakness of democracies: Expansionism of Germany and Italy was only possible because Britain and France avoided another war.
• Great Depression: Economic crises in many countries led to extreme ideologies like Nazism.

Outbreak of WW2: Germany claimed lost territory from Poland, leading to the invasion in 1939. Advance of Fascism: Japan occupied Manchuria in 1931, while Germany and Italy made... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Events, and Consequences" »

1. The Second World War

The Second World War was a military conflict that took place between 1939 and 1945. The war involved almost all of the European countries, Japan, the United States, China, and the European colonies in North Africa, Asia, and Oceania. This conflict involved total war: countries employed all the available resources to defeat the enemy, including human, military, economic, and scientific resources. In addition, war was waged against the whole population, both the military forces and the civilian population.

1.1. The Causes of the War

The reasons for the outbreak of war were the following:

• Nationalist Discontent: At the end of the First World War, both Germany and Italy were unhappy. Germany was unhappy because the Treaty of

BALLET:

-Court ballet (17th): became popular in the seventeenth century in the court of France's King Louis XIV.

-Simple choreographies because dancers were in general nobles who were dressed with court costumes.

-Played the music were baroque orchestras, famous person J.B. Lully.

-Romantic ballet (19th): type of dance as classical because of its high quality or standard.

-Innovative and complex choreographies performed by professional dancers. These ballets were story ballets.

-The scores were sophisticated and performed by large symphony orchestras.

-Russian composer P.I. Tchaikovsky (1840-1893).

-Modern and contemporary ballet (20th): More complex, innovative and abstract choreographies with a wider variety of movements.

-Costumes are varied and... Continue reading "Evolution of Ballet, Instrumental Forms, and Rock Music" »

Human Reproduction & Sexuality

Human reproduction is sexual and has two key characteristics:

• The new individual is formed from a single cell called a zygote.
• Zygotes result from the union of two gametes (fertilization).

Humans have two types of gametes: sperm (men) and ova (women).

Changes During Reproductive Life

During the reproductive life of a human being, there are three main stages:

• Puberty

  Puberty begins in men with the first ejaculation (spermarche) and in women with the first menstruation (menarche). This is due to the increased secretion of pituitary hormones: Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH), which stimulate gamete production.

  Puberty typically begins when girls are 10-13 years old and boys 12-14. It lasts

Hadean Eon: 4500-4000 Million Years Ago

Geology:

• Intense volcanic activity
• Intense meteorite activity
• Moon formation
• First solid crust
• Formation of mantle and core

Climate:

• Atmosphere formation
• Hydrosphere formation

Archean Eon: 4000-2500 Million Years Ago

Geology:

• First microcontinents (plate tectonics)

Biosphere:

• First prokaryotic cells (bacteria and archaea)

Proterozoic Eon: 2500-541 Million Years Ago

Geology:

• First supercontinent (Rodinia)
• Active tectonic activity

Climate:

• Extreme climates (interior of Rodinia)
• Major glaciation at the end - "Snowball Earth"

Biosphere:

• First eukaryotic cells
• First cyanobacteria - photosynthesis - O2 production
• First multicellular organisms

Phanerozoic Eon: 541 Million Years Ago - Present

Paleozoic Era (541-252 Million Years Ago)

• Cambrian

A Woman's Wartime Journey

London, December 12, 1917

My Dearest Sister,

I hope this letter finds you and your family well, and that you are managing the farm despite your husband and son's absence.

Here in London, rationing is stricter than ever, but I am keeping well and have ways of obtaining enough food through the black market. I am now employed at my husband's factory, ensuring his job remains secure until his return.

Many women from my organization have found similar work. Some are working in their husbands' offices, while others have taken on unexpected roles like grave diggers, road layers, and bus drivers. A few are even considering joining the Salvation Army, hoping to serve as nurses, cooks, or helpers in France.

Our lives have changed... Continue reading "A Woman's Wartime Journey: From Suffragist to Factory Worker" »

The Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Creation of the USSR

Causes of the Russian Revolution: Tsarist Empire Crisis

Tsar Nicholas II of Russia

At the dawn of the 20^th century, the Russian Empire faced significant turmoil, driven by widespread dissatisfaction across several levels:

Political Dissatisfaction

• Opposition of Political Parties:
  • Liberal bourgeois parties sought reform.
  • Marxist parties advocated for revolution.
  • Bolsheviks championed the dictatorship of the proletariat.
  • Mensheviks favored collaboration with bourgeois parties.

Economic and Social Disparities

• Marked class differences: extremely poor peasants, a very wealthy nobility, and a small bourgeois class.

Precursors: The 1905 Revolution

• Key events that fueled public discontent:
  • Russo-Japanese

The Spanish Monarchy could not maintain its dominance over England, France, and the Netherlands. The royal treasury (Hacienda) was deeply in debt, and resources from the Americas were not effectively utilized. A few privileged social groups dominated society, living off land rents and failing to stimulate a productive economy.

Internal Weaknesses and Economic Decline

• Monarchs' Disinterest and Delegation

  Monarchs showed little interest in governance, prioritizing personal income and prestige. They dedicated their time to hunting, palace receptions, and other leisure activities. They delegated their functions to their validos (royal favorites), who acted as heads of government.

• Corruption and Inefficient Administration

  Many validos exploited their