Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Secondary education

The Rise of Feudalism (10th Century)

In the 10th century, feudalism emerged as the new way of structuring and governing society. This system was based on relationships of mutual dependence between social groups, involving rights and duties on both sides. It primarily involved two main relationships: vassalage and servitude.

The Weakening of Monarchs and the Birth of Vassalage

Between the 9th and 10th centuries, the Carolingian Empire was divided into kingdoms. This division weakened the monarchs, who frequently clashed. This unstable situation, coupled with invasions, fragmented Europe. Monarchs struggled to manage this insecurity; they lacked the means to collect taxes or maintain an army sufficient to protect the populace.

To govern and defend... Continue reading "Medieval Power Dynamics: Feudal Society and the Role of the Church" »

Riba's Contribution to Poverty

Riba (usury) exacerbates poverty by exploiting people's wealth. It is a significant factor in rising prices and economic recession. Furthermore, it diminishes charitable acts and cooperation within society. From a moral standpoint, it strips human actions of their blessings. Borrowers often struggle to repay loans, ultimately leading to increased interest and indebtedness.

Risks of Accusing Chaste Women of Adultery

Accusing a chaste woman of adultery is an extremely serious offense and constitutes slander. Such accusations jeopardize her reputation and honor, leading to defamation within the community. They can also severely damage families, promote immorality, and foster animosity among people.

Benefits of Zakat

Social Hierarchy: The Pyramid of Classes

• Monarchy
• Nobles, Clergy, and Bourgeoisie
• Third State
• Conversos and Moriscos

The Empire of Charles V

Charles V was the son of Juana I of Castile and Philip of Habsburg. He inherited a vast territory from his grandparents:

Maternal Inheritance (The Catholic Monarchs)

• Crown of Castile
• Crown of Aragon
• Kingdom of Navarre

Paternal Inheritance (Emperor Maximilian I)

• The Holy Roman Empire
• Netherlands
• Franche-Comté
• Luxembourg
• German territories of the Habsburgs

The Revolt of the Comuneros

The Revolt of the Comuneros was begun in Castile by the nobility and peasants. It occurred because the monarchy gave little importance to, and did not worry about, Castilian affairs.

The Empire of Philip II

Philip II inherited a massive empire... Continue reading "Spanish Empire History: From Charles V to the 17th Century" »

Exercise 1: Vocabulary Identification

• Issues
• Overpopulation
• Moreover
• Homelessness
• Famine
• Cheated
• Expelled
• Fell
• Subjects
• Sororities
• Diet
• Publicity
• Unfit
• Get involved
• Lose
• Creative
• Passionate
• Irresponsible
• Importance
• Tolerant

Exercise 2: Vocabulary Matching and Definitions

• Nation: national, country
• Folklore: culture
• Reception: host
• Color of skin: race
• Country of origin: nationality
• The condition of being a woman or a man: gender
• 8. Immigrants
• Armed conflicts: wars
• Illnesses: diseases
• Extreme weather conditions: climate change
• Displaced people: refugees
• Really cheap: bargain
• Reduction: discount
• Used: second-hand
• Wait in line:
• Coins and notes: cash
• Plastic money: a credit card
• Ask for money from a friend: borrow
• To give money on the condition of repayment: lend

Exercise 3: Verb Tenses

Franco's Spain was characterized by a personal dictatorship, militarism, Catholicism, and Spanish unitary nationalism. It operated as a single-party state, with the Spanish Falange suppressing political opposition and trade unions. The country experienced a permanent division between the victors and the vanquished.

Social support for the regime came from the army, the church, the Falange, traditionalists, landowners, financiers, business owners, small and medium agricultural owners, and the middle class.

The totalitarian stage saw the establishment of a new political regime without a constitution or democratic freedoms, concentrating all power in Franco. Institutions from the Republican era were dismantled, including the 1931 Constitution with... Continue reading "Franco's Spain: Dictatorship to Economic Liberalization" »

Renaissance Sculpture

Influence of Classical Sculpture

Renaissance sculpture was heavily influenced by classical Greek and Roman art. Artists studied and replicated the forms and ideals of ancient sculptures.

Characteristics

• Use of various materials: marble, bronze, ceramic, and wood.
• Expansion of themes: Mythological, historical, and portraiture subjects were introduced alongside traditional religious themes.
• Two main forms:
  1. Sculptures in the round: Freestanding sculptures viewable from all angles.
  2. Reliefs: Sculptures carved on flat surfaces.
• Pursuit of ideal beauty: Artists emphasized anatomical accuracy and harmonious proportions based on the study of the human body.

The Quattrocento (15th Century)

• Florence as the leading center.
• Notable artists:
  • Ghiberti:

Základné definície: Hybnosť a Impulz sily

Hybnosť (p) je definovaná ako súčin hmotnosti telesa (m) a jeho rýchlosti (v): $p = m \cdot v$.

Impulz sily (I) je definovaný ako zmena hybnosti, teda $I = \Delta p = F \cdot \Delta t$, kde $F$ je sila a $\Delta t$ je čas, počas ktorého táto sila pôsobí.

Príklady výpočtu hybnosti (p)

1. Hybnosť auta

• Hmotnosť: $m = 1000 \text{ kg}$
• Rýchlosť: $v = 90 \text{ km/h} = 25 \text{ m/s}$
• Výpočet: $p = m \cdot v = 1000 \text{ kg} \cdot 25 \text{ m/s} = 25\,000 \text{ kg}\cdot\text{m/s}$

2. Zmena hybnosti vlaku

• Hmotnosť: $m = 30 \text{ ton} = 30\,000 \text{ kg}$
• Počiatočná rýchlosť: $v_1 = 50 \text{ km/h} \approx 13.89 \text{ m/s}$
• Konečná rýchlosť: $v_2 = 80 \text{ km/h} \approx 22.22

Vocabulary and Idiomatic Expressions

Migration and Society

• A spike in: Un pico de algo
• Cutting-edge technology: Tecnología avanzada
• Displace: Desplazar
• Emigrate: Emigrar
• Entrepreneurship: Espíritu emprendedor
• Fabric of society: Estructura de la sociedad
• Get out of control: Fuera de control
• Go-getter: Ambicioso
• Immigrate: Inmigrar
• Innovation: Innovación
• Melting pot: Crisol
• Migrate: Migrar
• Settle: Instalarse
• Trace your ancestry: Trazar tus ancestros
• Uproot: Arrancar

Family and Lifestyle

• Coordinate: Coordinar
• Distribute: Distribuir
• Eliminate: Eliminar
• Encounter: Tener un encuentro
• Extended family: Familia lejana
• Lifestyle choice: Elección de estilo de vida
• Preserve: Preservar
• Standard of living: Estándar de vida
• Threaten: Amenazar

Idioms and Phrases

• Get out of bed on

Circulatory System

Blood is a viscous, red, and saline liquid (approximately 5 liters). It is composed of:

• Plasma (55%): A yellowish liquid made of water and substances such as nutrients and hormones.
• Blood Cells: Produced in the bone marrow, there are three types:
  • Red blood cells (erythrocytes): Transport oxygen from the lungs to the cells using a red protein called hemoglobin.
  • White blood cells (leukocytes): Essential components of the immune system.
  • Platelets: Fragments of cells that function to stop bleeding.

Blood Functions

• Transport nutrients
• Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
• Transport waste products
• Regulate body temperature
• Participate in the immune system
• Prevent hemorrhages

Blood Vessels

• Arteries: Transport blood from the heart to the organs.

Napoleon

In 1802, Napoleon was named First Consul for life after his victory in Italy. In 1804, he was declared Emperor. He established the Civil Code, covering marriage, divorce, education, and inheritance.

Napoleon conquered many areas of Europe and spread Enlightened policies, but Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain tried to prevent it. Napoleon also had many problems when he invaded Spain and Russia. Finally, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.

Napoleon in Spain

Napoleon's Occupation of Spain

Charles IV and his minister Manuel Godoy supported Napoleon against Britain, but Spain was defeated at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805).

In 1807, Spain and France signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, by which Charles IV let the French troops... Continue reading "Napoleon's Reign and the Spanish War of Independence" »