Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Religion

Academic Skepticism: Arguments

Academic Skepticism, as explored by figures like Arcesilaus, investigated doubt through various arguments. Two key arguments were:

• The Argument of Contradiction: This argument suggests that for any proposition, an equally strong counter-proposition can be found, leading to a suspension of judgment.
• The Argument of Doubt: This posits that while one can question all things, the act of doubting itself cannot be doubted, leading to a state of equipollence.

New Academy: Dialectics and Denial

The New Academy adopted a distinct philosophical stance, emphasizing the denial of certain knowledge and employing dialectics as the art of defending arguments. This school of thought diverged from Neoplatonism.

Divine Illumination:

Church of God: The New Town Council and Renewal

The Church of God The New Town council is renewing the image of the church ahead of itself and the church as defined in the world of God. The church appears as a concerted model in the community with God and men, accompanying people in their sufferings and their joys, delivering the message of the gospel, and working with all in favor of a fairer world.

Vatican Council II: A New Image for the Church

Vatican Council II was the most important event of the church in the 20th century. The Council Fathers strove to give the church a new image. It was the first time that Orthodox churches from around the world met together. The conciliar documents contain 4 constitutions, making clear the new community'... Continue reading "Church of God: Renewal and New Testament Teachings" »

Historical Context: The Religious Monarchies

After the defeat of the Roman Empire, the Church was the only institution that maintained a stable structure of monarchies. By the 12th century, it achieved a unified network of existing fiefdoms, becoming the new point of reference.

The Western Schism and the Universities

The Western Schism occurred in 1378 with the election of two popes. In 1394, Cardinal Benedict XIII of Aragon was elected Pope. The Council of Constance resolved the conflict, deposing two popes and appointing one of concord, but Benedict XIII retired to the castle of Peniscola and did not accept this solution. The Church had become the main center of cultural promotion.

The Role of the Writer

Throughout the Middle Ages, the writer... Continue reading "Medieval Religious Monarchies and Catalan Literature" »

Grammatical Analysis of Sentence Structures

Analysis: "I say these cravings..."

This sentence is grammatically complex, containing a main clause and a subordinate clause. It implies a subordinating conjunction, often referred to as a complementizer.

Sentence Structure Overview

• It is a complex sentence because it contains a main clause and a subordinate clause, each with its own verb.
• The main verbs are say and have been.
• There is an implied subordinating conjunction (complementizer) that, which introduces a substantive clause.
• Therefore, there are two propositions related by this complementary link.

Main Clause: "I say these cravings"

• Subject (SN): "I"
• Predicate (SV): "say these cravings"
• Nucleus of Predicate: "say"
• Direct Object (SN): "these cravings"

Ballads

Ballads are eight-syllable verses, with assonance in pairs and odd verses loose. Stylistic preferences include action over description, a structure of dialogue, a beginning in medias res, a truncated end, archaisms, replacement of verb forms, use of repetition, and use of questions.

Mester de Clerecía

The Mester de Clerecía uses cuaderna vía, four-line verses of 14 syllables, with caesura divided into hemistiches of seven syllables and consonant rhyme. These works were recited in Latin. Anonymous works include:

• Libro de Alexandre: The legend of Alexander the Great.
• Libro de Apolonio: An adventure story in the Byzantine manner, telling the story of King Apollonius.
• Poema de Fernán González: Tells the story of Fernán González (arranged

The Four Noble Truths

1. Life inevitably involves pain and suffering.
2. The origin of suffering is desire, clinging to things and people, causing the suffering of loss or the pain of not having them.
3. Suffering and pain can be extinguished at their root by eliminating desire, the extinction of the self.
4. The **Eightfold Noble Path** leads to the cessation of suffering:

• Right Understanding (of the Four Noble Truths)
• Right Thought (willingness to reject hate and violence)
• Right Speech (to live without lying and without unnecessary words)
• Right Action (moral behavior)
• Right Livelihood (that your work does not hurt others)
• Right Effort (taking all the inner strength to take action and overcome negative instincts)
• Right Mindfulness (taking special care of things

Language Functions

Functions of language are not incompatible if mixed; talk of secondary functions.

1. Predominant and Representative Functions: Context focuses on the objective to convey information. Extralinguistics focuses on reality; its main feature is objectivity.
2. Expressive Function: Issuer-oriented, emphasizes feelings and attitude of the speaker. The message is above the transmission of the facts; the characteristic function is colloquial registration.
3. Appellative Function: Receiver-oriented, the intent is to influence the behavior of the receiver (call someone, ask questions, request, order, prohibit, counsel).
4. Phatic Function: Acts on the channel; the aim is to establish a communication channel or close it.
5. Metalinguistic Function: Focus

Yerma: Character Analysis

Secondary Characters

• Juan

  Yerma's husband. He is a strong man with few fixed ideas, dedicating most of his life to working in the fields. Unlike his wife, Juan does not want children. He desires a peaceful, quiet life and wants Yerma to always be at home, performing domestic duties while he works. He often makes disparaging comments about his wife.

• María

  A young friend of Yerma. She is a mother, which causes Yerma much sorrow as she longs for a child. They often discuss their relationships with their husbands. Initially, María was scared of having a son, but Yerma's support helped her overcome this fear.

• Víctor

  A friend of Juan. He is a cheerful man who always tries to encourage Yerma. On one occasion, Yerma collapsed

Verdaguer's Impact on Catalan Culture

What does it mean from a linguistic point of view? The value of the motherland lies in its dignity and refined poetic language, which affirms Catalan's potential as a cultural language during a time when this was questioned. It's important to remember that the Catalan language had endured centuries of restricted and inconsistent use.

Joaquin Rubio and Catalan Language Activism

What is the work undertaken by Joaquin Rubio and Ors? Ors is an activist for the Catalan language, poetry, and is a proactive figure in favor of what he calls independence.

Verdaguer: Priest and Poet

To what extent do the activities of priest and poet complement each other in Verdaguer? From the perspective of the Catholic sector in the... Continue reading "Verdaguer: Catalan Poetry, Religion, and Renaissance" »

The Theatre of the Absurd

The Theatre of the Absurd was born in the 1950s. It sought to witness the disenchantment of the writers of the time against society and a world that did not have much to offer, allowing the theater to express itself through art. It demonstrated the problems of communication, loneliness, and despair affecting men and women in this nonsensical era. It employs rupturist schemes, breaking pre-established norms. It is a non-selective, mass theater, where approaches lead to different understandings.

The term Theatre of the Absurd was coined by the English critic, Martin Esslin. He used this term for all playwrights of the 1950s characterized by establishing a break with traditional theater. Ionesco, however, was instrumental... Continue reading "The Theatre of the Absurd: Origins, Characteristics, and Key Authors" »