Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Religion

The Evangelization of the World

The great discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries opened the door to universal evangelization. Following the discovery in 1492, a major missionary expansion began. Royal laws provided for the humane treatment of Indigenous peoples and the suppression of abuses, but many exploited the natives.

These encomenderos faced great difficulties:

• Enormous distances
• Language barriers
• Cultural differences

Nevertheless, the work of the missionaries had a very positive impact. Also remarkable was the work of the Jesuits in the reductions: moving from a classical mission model to promoting the best of local cultures with great practicality, achieving significant cultural, social, and religious development.

Renaissance and Baroque

Pilgrimage

Pilgrimage is a ritual involving a trip to a holy place to give thanks or apologize for one's faith.

Catharism

Catharism, a Christian confession, emerged in the eleventh century in southern France, leading to a sectarian movement. It defended Christian dualism and advocated for poverty.

Scholasticism

Scholasticism was a philosophical and theological movement based on research to reconcile arguments of revelation or faith with arguments of reason.

Theocentrism

Theocentrism is a school of thought where God and reason were the center of everything that existed.

East-West Schism

East-West Schism (Source): The division of the Roman Empire into the Western and Byzantine empires created tension between the churches of Rome and Constantinople.

1054... Continue reading "Religious Movements and Historical Events" »

Mutual Influence Between Social and Moral Development

There is a mutual influence between social and moral development. Moral development is serene if there is concordance between patterns of adult behavior, teachers, and friends.

God Representations and Anthropomorphisms

• 6-7 years: Children often have anthropomorphic representations of God, such as an old, bearded, strong man.
• 7-10 years: The image of God is refined. He is seen as an omnipotent legislator and a loving God. Catholic children initially perceive God as a strong and wise man, then as a very large and powerful giant. Finally, He is understood less anthropomorphically, moving towards the concept of an invisible spirit.

Children 3-4 Years - Moral Aspect

Children begin to have a rough idea... Continue reading "Social and Moral Development in Children: Ages 3 to 8" »

Creation According to St. Augustine

St. Augustine was a creationist. He believed that God, using words, created everything out of nothing in six days. This act was sudden, free, and willed by God.

God established rules and principles that govern the world, influencing generations, shaping human experiences (both good and bad), and fostering the development of culture.

St. Augustine's Philosophy of History

1. St. Augustine and the Importance of History

St. Augustine is considered the first thinker to provide a comprehensive explanation of universal history within the philosophy of history. His schematic approach helps us understand actions and events.

2. The Event: The Fall of the Roman Empire

The decline of the Empire and the sacking of Rome served... Continue reading "St. Augustine's Philosophy: Creation, History, and the Two Cities" »

Germanic Peoples and the Roman Empire

Germanic peoples: The Romans called barbarians those who lived outside the borders of the empire, to the north of the rivers Danube and Rhine. These were the Germans in various groups such as Saxons, Swabians, Franks, Visigoths, Ostrogoths, etc., originating from Denmark and Scandinavia. They entered the empire from the 3rd century AD, sometimes peacefully, other times through conflict. In the 5th century AD, after the Huns (who came to Europe from the Asian steppe led by Attila) attacked, the Germans invaded the Roman Empire in turn. The Germanic chieftain Odoacer of the Heruli people deposed the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire withstood invasions and endured.

The Germans

Academic Skepticism: Arguments

Academic Skepticism, as explored by figures like Arcesilaus, investigated doubt through various arguments. Two key arguments were:

• The Argument of Contradiction: This argument suggests that for any proposition, an equally strong counter-proposition can be found, leading to a suspension of judgment.
• The Argument of Doubt: This posits that while one can question all things, the act of doubting itself cannot be doubted, leading to a state of equipollence.

New Academy: Dialectics and Denial

The New Academy adopted a distinct philosophical stance, emphasizing the denial of certain knowledge and employing dialectics as the art of defending arguments. This school of thought diverged from Neoplatonism.

Divine Illumination:

Church of God: The New Town Council and Renewal

The Church of God The New Town council is renewing the image of the church ahead of itself and the church as defined in the world of God. The church appears as a concerted model in the community with God and men, accompanying people in their sufferings and their joys, delivering the message of the gospel, and working with all in favor of a fairer world.

Vatican Council II: A New Image for the Church

Vatican Council II was the most important event of the church in the 20th century. The Council Fathers strove to give the church a new image. It was the first time that Orthodox churches from around the world met together. The conciliar documents contain 4 constitutions, making clear the new community'... Continue reading "Church of God: Renewal and New Testament Teachings" »

Historical Context: The Religious Monarchies

After the defeat of the Roman Empire, the Church was the only institution that maintained a stable structure of monarchies. By the 12th century, it achieved a unified network of existing fiefdoms, becoming the new point of reference.

The Western Schism and the Universities

The Western Schism occurred in 1378 with the election of two popes. In 1394, Cardinal Benedict XIII of Aragon was elected Pope. The Council of Constance resolved the conflict, deposing two popes and appointing one of concord, but Benedict XIII retired to the castle of Peniscola and did not accept this solution. The Church had become the main center of cultural promotion.

The Role of the Writer

Throughout the Middle Ages, the writer... Continue reading "Medieval Religious Monarchies and Catalan Literature" »

Grammatical Analysis of Sentence Structures

Analysis: "I say these cravings..."

This sentence is grammatically complex, containing a main clause and a subordinate clause. It implies a subordinating conjunction, often referred to as a complementizer.

Sentence Structure Overview

• It is a complex sentence because it contains a main clause and a subordinate clause, each with its own verb.
• The main verbs are say and have been.
• There is an implied subordinating conjunction (complementizer) that, which introduces a substantive clause.
• Therefore, there are two propositions related by this complementary link.

Main Clause: "I say these cravings"

• Subject (SN): "I"
• Predicate (SV): "say these cravings"
• Nucleus of Predicate: "say"
• Direct Object (SN): "these cravings"

Ballads

Ballads are eight-syllable verses, with assonance in pairs and odd verses loose. Stylistic preferences include action over description, a structure of dialogue, a beginning in medias res, a truncated end, archaisms, replacement of verb forms, use of repetition, and use of questions.

Mester de Clerecía

The Mester de Clerecía uses cuaderna vía, four-line verses of 14 syllables, with caesura divided into hemistiches of seven syllables and consonant rhyme. These works were recited in Latin. Anonymous works include:

• Libro de Alexandre: The legend of Alexander the Great.
• Libro de Apolonio: An adventure story in the Byzantine manner, telling the story of King Apollonius.
• Poema de Fernán González: Tells the story of Fernán González (arranged