Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Religion

St. Augustine: Life and Works

Biography

Born in Tagaste, North Africa, in 354 AD, St. Augustine, son of a Christian mother, St. Monica, and a pagan father, Patricius, received a robust literary and philosophical education. He taught grammar and rhetoric in Carthage, Rome, and Milan. Initially adhering to Manichaeism, he later experienced a skeptical crisis before embracing Platonic and Neoplatonic doctrines. In Milan, influenced by his mother, St. Ambrose's sermons, and the New Testament, he converted to Christianity, receiving baptism from St. Ambrose. Returning to Africa in 391 after his mother's death, he was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius, becoming bishop four years later. He died in Hippo during the Vandal siege in 430 AD.

Augustine... Continue reading "St. Augustine: Life, Philosophy, and Theology" »

Comparing Kant and Hume's Ethical Philosophies

Kant and Hume, despite both being Enlightenment thinkers, presented contrasting ethical frameworks. While Hume, influenced by empiricism, argued that morality stems from emotions, Kant grounded ethics in reason.

Hume's Emotivism

Hume believed that reason cannot dictate behavior. Instead, our actions are driven by passions. Morality arises from sentiments; we deem something good or bad based on the feelings it evokes. Reason helps us analyze situations, but emotions ultimately guide our actions.

Kant's Deontology

Kant argued that humans are unique in possessing both reason and emotions. He warned against being solely guided by passions, advocating for rational autonomy. Kant's ethics are rooted in reason,... Continue reading "Kant vs. Hume: Contrasting Ethical Philosophies" »

Hinduism

In Hinduism, the concept of God is very important, not as dogma. It has no specific founder and sees no compulsory religious practices. Hindus consider that one should just live in harmony with the dharma of all things. Its origin goes back over 3,000 years. Hindus are not made, but born. Key characteristics include freedom and tolerance. A teacher, or guru, is needed. Hindus believe in reincarnation for release. There are three paths to release:

• Acts: Perfectly fulfilling the duties associated with one's caste.
• Knowledge: Discovering knowledge to achieve the absolute.
• Devotion: The path of goodness and kindness towards a personal God, one of the yogas, which stops all mental activity to calm the spirit itself.

Hindus are organized into... Continue reading "Major World Religions: Beliefs and Practices" »

Councils Against Heresies

The Church Faithful to the Apostolic Tradition

Heresies are misinterpretations of Christian doctrine. There were many in the early centuries, such as:

• The Council of Nicea: Condemned the doctrine of Arius, stating that Jesus Christ was not equal to the Father but less than Him; therefore, Christ was not God.
• Council of Ephesus: Declared that Nestorius's view of Christ was incorrect, as it denied the divine nature in Christ.
• The Council of Chalcedon: Further defined the nature of Christ.

Early Christian and Byzantine Art

Basilica

With the Edicts of Milan and Thessaloniki, Christians could publicly practice their religion. With the possibility of building spaces for worship, Roman public buildings were taken as a model. Basilicas... Continue reading "Early Church Councils, Art, and Community Structure" »

The House of Bernarda Alba: Authoritarianism vs. Freedom

The House of Bernarda Alba presents the conflict between an authoritarian, rigid, and conventional morality (represented by Bernarda) and the desire for freedom (embodied by Maria Josefa and Adela). This conflict manifests in a series of irreconcilable oppositions:

• Bernarda's stifling repression versus the explicit rebellion of her mother and daughters (best exemplified by Adela).
• The clash between traditional morality, concern for appearances, and the daughters' desire for liberation.
• The mismatch between the family's social reality and their desires, which leads them to frustration and rebellion.
• The rigid separation between the inside of the house, hot and oppressive, and the outside world,

The Medieval Church: Structure and Reform

Monastic Life in the Middle Ages

Monastic life during this period was significantly marked by:

• The Benedictine Reform (Cluny).
• The emergence of new orders, such as the Cistercians.

The Cistercian Order

The Cistercians sought a return to the simplicity of life and evangelical poverty. Monasteries were founded following these principles, emphasizing renewal and strict adherence to the rule.

Divisions within Christianity

The Great Schism brought about a fundamental division among Christians:

• Western or Roman Catholic Christians: Who recognize the Pope as the visible head of the Church.
• Eastern or Orthodox Christians: Who follow a more collegial structure of leadership.

The Investiture Controversy

This conflict arose... Continue reading "The Medieval Church: Reforms, Schisms, and the Rise of Monastic Orders" »

Medieval Fiction

Between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries, different types of narrative developed: religious and moral (Ramon Llull), history (chronicles), philosophy (Bernard Metge), and novelistic.

Ramon Llull

Life

Ramon Llull was born in Mallorca in 1232, just three years after King James I conquered the island from the Saracens. A descendant of a wealthy Barcelona family, he received a good education, enabling him to become seneschal at the court of King James II of Majorca. He married, had two sons, and cultivated troubadour poetry.

In 1263, as he explains in his autobiography, Jesus Christ appeared to him crucified. This vision led him to abandon court life and dedicate himself fully to converting infidels to Christianity through three... Continue reading "Medieval Fiction and Ramon Llull's Legacy" »

Three Key Spanish Literary Figures

José Ortega y Gasset

An animator and intellectual guide for his generation, Ortega y Gasset held a BA in Philosophy. His work is primarily essayistic, including:

• The Revolt of the Masses
• The Dehumanization of Art (in which he calls for an art aimed at a minority, arguing that true art is not made for the masses).

He encouraged intellectual, political, and creative struggle, helping to establish The League for Political Education along with other authors.

Gabriel Miró

Miró led a simple life, removed from the intellectual scene. He studied law and, in 1908, won an award with Wanderer (El vagabundo). His early texts are impressions of La Mancha, demonstrating his descriptive propensity. In 1914, he began The Sacred

Key Dates in the Christian Calendar

• Christmas: December 25
• Advent Sundays: November 28, December 5, 12, 19
• Easter: March 28
• 1st Sunday of Lent: March 23
• Lent: February 4 - March 10

The Concept of Calendars

Nature has cycles that follow constant rates according to circumstances such as climate and geography. A calendar is used to tell the time limits set out by the sun or the moon.

• Solar Calendars: These are based on the length of time it takes the Earth to orbit the Sun.
• Lunar Calendars: These are based on lunar phases and consist of 12 months of 29 or 30 days, totaling 354 days. Only one calendar is strictly lunar.
• Lunisolar Calendars: In these calendars, the year lasts 365 days, but the months follow the phases of the moon, so each month has a variable

Saint Augustine argues that Christianity and being Christian makes us better people because we have God and everything that is attached to the good. Therefore, good and evil are two very important concepts according to St. Augustine, as was the commentary on evil and free will. All humans are born with the need to choose freely, but Saint Augustine knows that to be happy, one must choose Christianity, namely, choose events close to God. Those who are far from Christianity and God are near evil. To explain evil and free will, an example can be exposed through the book The City of God. In St. Augustine's book, there is a problem between Christians and pagans. He explains good and evil using a simile: the good (Jerusalem) and evil (Babylon). In... Continue reading "Saint Augustine: Christianity, Free Will, and Happiness" »