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Early Church Councils, Art, and Community Structure

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Councils Against Heresies

The Church Faithful to the Apostolic Tradition

Heresies are misinterpretations of Christian doctrine. There were many in the early centuries, such as:

  • The Council of Nicea: Condemned the doctrine of Arius, stating that Jesus Christ was not equal to the Father but less than Him; therefore, Christ was not God.
  • Council of Ephesus: Declared that Nestorius's view of Christ was incorrect, as it denied the divine nature in Christ.
  • The Council of Chalcedon: Further defined the nature of Christ.

Early Christian and Byzantine Art

Basilica

With the Edicts of Milan and Thessaloniki, Christians could publicly practice their religion. With the possibility of building spaces for worship, Roman public buildings were taken as a model. Basilicas... Continue reading "Early Church Councils, Art, and Community Structure" »

Bernarda Alba: Authoritarianism vs. Freedom in Lorca's Play

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The House of Bernarda Alba: Authoritarianism vs. Freedom

The House of Bernarda Alba presents the conflict between an authoritarian, rigid, and conventional morality (represented by Bernarda) and the desire for freedom (embodied by Maria Josefa and Adela). This conflict manifests in a series of irreconcilable oppositions:

  • Bernarda's stifling repression versus the explicit rebellion of her mother and daughters (best exemplified by Adela).
  • The clash between traditional morality, concern for appearances, and the daughters' desire for liberation.
  • The mismatch between the family's social reality and their desires, which leads them to frustration and rebellion.
  • The rigid separation between the inside of the house, hot and oppressive, and the outside world,
... Continue reading "Bernarda Alba: Authoritarianism vs. Freedom in Lorca's Play" »

Medieval Fiction and Ramon Llull's Legacy

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Medieval Fiction

Between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries, different types of narrative developed: religious and moral (Ramon Llull), history (chronicles), philosophy (Bernard Metge), and novelistic.

Ramon Llull

Life

Ramon Llull was born in Mallorca in 1232, just three years after King James I conquered the island from the Saracens. A descendant of a wealthy Barcelona family, he received a good education, enabling him to become seneschal at the court of King James II of Majorca. He married, had two sons, and cultivated troubadour poetry.

In 1263, as he explains in his autobiography, Jesus Christ appeared to him crucified. This vision led him to abandon court life and dedicate himself fully to converting infidels to Christianity through three... Continue reading "Medieval Fiction and Ramon Llull's Legacy" »

Spanish Literary Figures: Ortega y Gasset, Miró, and Pérez de Ayala

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Three Key Spanish Literary Figures

José Ortega y Gasset

An animator and intellectual guide for his generation, Ortega y Gasset held a BA in Philosophy. His work is primarily essayistic, including:

  • The Revolt of the Masses
  • The Dehumanization of Art (in which he calls for an art aimed at a minority, arguing that true art is not made for the masses).

He encouraged intellectual, political, and creative struggle, helping to establish The League for Political Education along with other authors.

Gabriel Miró

Miró led a simple life, removed from the intellectual scene. He studied law and, in 1908, won an award with Wanderer (El vagabundo). His early texts are impressions of La Mancha, demonstrating his descriptive propensity. In 1914, he began The Sacred

... Continue reading "Spanish Literary Figures: Ortega y Gasset, Miró, and Pérez de Ayala" »

Understanding Calendars and Religious Holidays

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Key Dates in the Christian Calendar

  • Christmas: December 25
  • Advent Sundays: November 28, December 5, 12, 19
  • Easter: March 28
  • 1st Sunday of Lent: March 23
  • Lent: February 4 - March 10

The Concept of Calendars

Nature has cycles that follow constant rates according to circumstances such as climate and geography. A calendar is used to tell the time limits set out by the sun or the moon.

  • Solar Calendars: These are based on the length of time it takes the Earth to orbit the Sun.
  • Lunar Calendars: These are based on lunar phases and consist of 12 months of 29 or 30 days, totaling 354 days. Only one calendar is strictly lunar.
  • Lunisolar Calendars: In these calendars, the year lasts 365 days, but the months follow the phases of the moon, so each month has a variable
... Continue reading "Understanding Calendars and Religious Holidays" »

Saint Augustine: Christianity, Free Will, and Happiness

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Saint Augustine argues that Christianity and being Christian makes us better people because we have God and everything that is attached to the good. Therefore, good and evil are two very important concepts according to St. Augustine, as was the commentary on evil and free will. All humans are born with the need to choose freely, but Saint Augustine knows that to be happy, one must choose Christianity, namely, choose events close to God. Those who are far from Christianity and God are near evil. To explain evil and free will, an example can be exposed through the book The City of God. In St. Augustine's book, there is a problem between Christians and pagans. He explains good and evil using a simile: the good (Jerusalem) and evil (Babylon). In... Continue reading "Saint Augustine: Christianity, Free Will, and Happiness" »

Medieval Spanish Literature: Metrics, Genres, and Church Influence

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Metric: Castilian Lyric

In traditional lyric poems, minor art of different sizes, assonance, and rhyme predominate. Carols, composed of a chorus and verse, encompass two or three verses that are repeated. It is a poem of art minor verses, usually with assonance rhyme.

Jarcha

Most jarchas have four verses, with a widespread tendency to rhyme even verses only (although there is some cross-rhyme and common even rhyme). The next most frequent are two verses, and trísticos also abound, usually monorhythmic, but also of two rhymes. The most frequent verse types are hexasyllabic, octosyllabic, and heptasyllabic. The rhyme is generally consonant, though often imperfect.

Epic: Song of My Cid

Each verse is divided into two hemistiches by a caesura. Both... Continue reading "Medieval Spanish Literature: Metrics, Genres, and Church Influence" »

Ramon Llull: Life, Philosophy, and Medieval Literary Legacy

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Ramon Llull: Life and Conversion (1232–1316)

Ramon Llull (1232–1316) was born in Mallorca. At 32 years old, he was married and had two children. At that moment, Jesus Christ appeared to him, leading to his conversion. He decided to learn religion and later, Arabic.

Llull's Literary Periods

First Period: Encyclopedic Works

Llull wrote an encyclopedic work intended as a compilation of all medieval knowledge, called the Book of Contemplation of God.

Second Period: The Art (Ars Magna)

Llull developed the Art, a logical system for demonstrating religious truths. This period is characterized by two bases:

  • Quaternary Base: Based on four basic ideas.
  • Ternary Base: A simplification of the Quaternary Base designed for universal understanding.

Key works from... Continue reading "Ramon Llull: Life, Philosophy, and Medieval Literary Legacy" »

Catholic Reformation and the Jesuits: A Historical Analysis

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Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation

Counter-Reformation

This is also called the Catholic Reformation, promoted by the Catholic Church in response to the doctrine of Luther and the Catholic reformers. The Council of Trent laid the doctrinal foundations of Catholicism.

Reformation

The renovation of the church did not only appear with Luther. It had already begun within the church, but it would not be fully realized until the Council of Trent. One of the most important factors of the Reformation was:

Cisneros and the Spanish Reformation

The situation in Spain in the late fifteenth century was very different from the rest of Europe. The Reconquista struggle had created a warm and almost fanatic atmosphere, fighting Muslims and Jews. The union... Continue reading "Catholic Reformation and the Jesuits: A Historical Analysis" »

Celestina: Love, Greed, and Tragedy in 1499 Spain

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Celestina: A Tale of Love, Greed, and Tragedy

Celestina, published in villages in 1499, was written in 21 acts by Fernando de Rojas. Key themes include love, greed that drives servants mad, fortune and blind chance responsible for human tragedy, magic, time, and social upheaval.

Social Context: The Rise of the Bourgeoisie

The old social order, dominated by the nobility, was being replaced by the high bourgeoisie. Traditional feelings of respect and loyalty between masters and servants were giving way to economic relationships. This shift led to the configuration of a new moral code based on individual consciousness and the desire for freedom.

Space and Time in Celestina

The plot unfolds in multiple locations, both interior and exterior. Rojas masterfully... Continue reading "Celestina: Love, Greed, and Tragedy in 1499 Spain" »