Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Research Designs

Non-Experimental Design

In this design, the independent variable cannot be manipulated to produce an effect on the dependent variable. This is because the events have already occurred, or certain variables cannot be altered.

Types of Non-Experimental Design

• Transversal Design

  Gathers information about a problem category at a single point in time, using different groups of cases.

• Longitudinal Design

  Gathers information about a problem category over time, using the same cases at different intervals.

Experimental Design

A design where the independent variable can be manipulated to generate changes in the dependent variable, typically within a controlled situation.

Types of Experimental Design

• Field Research

  Conducted in a real or natural

Developmental Sequences and Theories

The Evolution of Attachment

The evolution of attachment follows this sequence:

• Preference for members of the same species.
• Typical preferences for caregivers.
• Clear preference for attachment figures and rejection of strangers.
• Development of some independence from attachment figures.

Motor and Cognitive Development

Proximodistal Law: A child develops the muscles of the elbow first and then the wrist.

Longitudinal Design: Uses a single sample from which it takes several measurements at different time points.

Attachment Characteristics: Attachment is characterized by behavior, mental models, and feelings.

Graphic Expression: The development of graphic expression is driven by maturation and social processes.

Preschool

The Death Dilemma and Terminal Care

Characteristics of the Death Dilemma

• Existential
• Uncertain
• Irreversible
• Insoluble
• Shocking
• Inexplicable
• Mystery

Needs of the Terminally Ill Patient

Meeting these needs is crucial for the patient's well-being:

• Physical: Symptom relief and recovery.
• Psychological: Safety, understanding, and esteem.
• Social: Acceptance and belonging.
• Spiritual: Love, reconciliation, and self-assessment.

Psychological Characteristics of the Terminally Ill

Regression

The patient becomes more childlike.

Self-Awareness (Folding Over)

The patient is highly aware of themselves, detecting any signal related to their condition. This also occurs in the chronically ill.

Anguish

Especially common in patients who lack religious ties.

Factors Influencing Coping

Primary socialization is the most important part of the process. It aims to introduce the subject into society and develops within the family during childhood. In industrial societies, television and primary school also play an important role. In this stage, the child takes over the roles, attitudes, and values of the people around him (parents, grandparents, siblings, teachers, etc.) and identifies with them. Gradually, the child internalizes roles and norms through a process of progressive generalization, moving from specific norms, attitudes, and values to more widespread ones. The process of primary socialization is not merely cognitive or intellectual but has a significant emotional component within the family. Loving relationships are... Continue reading "Understanding Socialization: Primary, Secondary, and Resocialization" »

Social Deviance and Societal Norms

Social deviance is any behavior that deviates from the standards generally accepted by society. Social deviance is not necessarily a crime, as it refers specifically to the non-observance of social norms. In other words, these are acts that deviate from the rules imposed by a given society.

Human social life is governed by standards or rules that define certain types of behavior as appropriate in certain contexts. Social deviance is the result of human life in society; wherever there are laws, rules, or standards, there is potential for the development of deviation.

The Concept of Anomie

In social studies, anomie refers to the inability of the social structure to provide certain individuals with the means necessary... Continue reading "Social Deviance, Anomie, and the Roots of Crime" »

Intelligence Project "HARVARD": Conceptual Definition

The Intelligence Project "HARVARD" (PIH) represents clear guidance heuristic models that put the emphasis on teaching methods, strategies, or specific techniques. The PIH has its starting point at the initiative of the Ministry for the Development of Human Intelligence of Venezuela and the collaboration of Harvard University (which claims to improve the Venezuelan education system). It coincides with other programs aimed at introducing cognitive enhancement and improving the efficiency of educational processes.

Primary Objective

The fundamental objective is to develop procedures to enhance thinking skills.

Four Factors in Intellectual Performance

The PIH distinguishes four factors in intellectual... Continue reading "Project Intelligence Harvard: Boosting Cognitive Skills" »

Party Roles

A role is defined as an individual's function within a group. Individuals can fulfill multiple roles across different groups.

Status refers to an individual's position within a hierarchical structure.

The role involves practicing behaviors aligned with the status held. While a person may play different roles, certain behaviors define each role. Studying the "Johari Window" helps understand how individuals present themselves in relation to others.

Johari Window: Four Key Areas

• Open Area: What I know about myself and what others know about me.
• Blind Spot: What others know about me, but I don't know about myself.
• Hidden Area: What I know about myself, but others don't know.
• Unknown Area: What neither I nor others know about me.

Within groups,... Continue reading "Understanding Group Dynamics: Roles, Conflicts, and Teamwork" »

Brain Anatomy and Biological Development

• 1. Is brain size related to testosterone? How does this connection work?
• 2. What is the state of the brain at birth?
• 3. At what age does the brain reach its full size?
• 4. What defines normal versus abnormal human brain size, and why?
• 5. What is the encephalization quotient?
• 6. What factors must be considered when relating brain size to intelligence?
• 7. Which animal has the largest brain relative to body size? Who ranks second?
• 8. What surface area does the cerebral cortex cover in Homo sapiens, chimpanzees, and rats?

Evolutionary History and Biological Origins

• 9. When did the first mammals appear?
• 10. According to Darwin, what happens when a sense is no longer needed?
• 11. What provides us with our sense of vision?

Foundations of Systematic Research

Research: Generating knowledge enables us to better understand reality. It is a rigorous, systematic, methodical, and rational process. You must establish contextualization, setting limits such as the area of knowledge (discipline), spatial limits, temporal limits, and population limits.

There are two primary types of knowledge:

• Scientific Knowledge: Based on empirical evidence (rescued from reality in some form).
• Folk Knowledge (People's Knowledge): Transmitted from generation to generation.

Stages of the Research Process

Research typically involves three or four main stages:

Stage 1: Desk or Cabinet Work

• Epistemological: Fixing the object of study (a moment of reflection and interest).
• Theoretical: Reviewing literature

Understanding Participant Observation Nuances

However, there are nuances. Systematic observation (excluding verbal interaction) is easy to perform in open spaces. It is also relatively smooth when the researcher is introduced as a participant but primarily functions as an observer (e.g., journalists).

The researcher undergoes a progressive process, starting from initial integration into the observed group. Initially, they are inevitably guided by their pre-existing theoretical assumptions (etic approach). This continues until they grasp the group's own interpretation of reality, which the group uses to classify, arrange, and organize their experiences (emic approach).

It is crucial to gain an insider's perspective on the field and systematize... Continue reading "Participant Observation: Field Access and Research Dynamics" »