Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Vygotsky and the Crisis of Psychology (1896-1934)

During the period of 1896-1934, the Crisis of Psychology emerged because no existing school was conducive to the methods of observation, measurement, and testing alongside psychoanalysis. This era provided the basis for a theory regarding the processes of human psychology. Seeking an approximation to describe and explain brain mechanisms within a social context, Development Practice is based on Marxism and the historical changes that occur in society and material life.

The Origin of Higher Psychological Functions

Sociocultural theory posits that higher psychological functions originate from historical-social interaction. These functions are mediated by structure and language, involving subconscious... Continue reading "Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development" »

The Mind-Body Debate in Philosophy

The relationship between the body and the mind is an old problem for philosophy. There are three main categories of responses with different variants:

Monism: One Unified Reality

From this point of view, it is stated that the mind and body are not separate realities, but different aspects of one reality. This reality may be of a material nature according to the atomists; one of whom was Democritus, who proposed the atom and believed the body and mind were united. Alternatively, it may be of a mental type according to rationalists like Spinoza.

Dualism: Mind and Brain as Separate Entities

This perspective goes back to Plato and Descartes and states that the mind and brain are two different realities, each with its... Continue reading "The Mind-Body Problem: Philosophical Perspectives" »

Theory of Differential Association and White-Collar Crime

According to Edwin Sutherland, criminal behavior is learned rather than inherited or born from spontaneous generation, rejecting purely positivist views. He also posits that low IQ does not inherently imply criminal behavior. Learning occurs through differential association—the groups and social circles to which an individual is linked. If these groups predominantly support criminal ideas, the individual learns criminal behavior; conversely, if the group adheres to law and order, the individual adopts those behaviors. Differential association acts as both a source and a consequence of learning, applicable to both antisocial and prosocial conduct.

The Nine Propositions of Differential

The Nature of Mind

We use the term mind to refer to the phenomena, processes, and psychological states we experience. Many authors identify the mind with psychic phenomena, yet some remain unsatisfied, reluctant to accept that it is merely a set of mental events. For these thinkers, the mind is an enduring entity. Conversely, other authors see no need to define the mind as distinct from the collection of mental phenomena.

Distinguishing Mental Phenomena from the Physical

• Intentionality: The property where our beliefs tend to refer to something beyond themselves.
• Intimacy: The property of mental phenomena being unobservable to others. These states are directly accessible to the person who possesses them but inaccessible to others. They are unextended,

What are the Functions of Assessment?

The role of assessment includes formative assessment, diagnostic evaluation, forecast evaluation, and function-oriented evaluation.

What is Diagnostic Assessment?

Diagnostic assessment is performed prior to the development of the educational process. To perform a diagnostic evaluation, different procedures can be used, such as written questions, oral exchanges with the group on the topic of interest, and observing the student in their work related to the themes.

What is Formative Assessment?

This assessment is the most important in the educational process because it provides the student with feedback (and of course, feedback to the teacher) regarding their performance. It indicates what has been achieved, what... Continue reading "Understanding Educational Assessment: Types, Functions, and Tools" »

Aesthetic Experience, Aisthesis, and Hermeneusis

The set of aesthetic experiences includes *judgments* (or *judicative acts*) and moments of catharsis. *Aisthesis* (sensory perception) includes, in turn, a *hermeneusis*—that is, a dimension of assessment and interpretation. This evaluative-judgmental activity is assigned to taste, corresponding with the rehabilitation of the lower faculties: sensation and feeling.

Axiological Intuition and the Perceptual-Evaluative Act

Axiological intuition, which accompanies sensible intuition and perception, forms a unified experiential, perceptual-evaluative act. Perception (sensible intuition) gives us the object (nature), which is a correlate of the act, always incomplete and open. The thing appears *foreshortened*... Continue reading "The Phenomenology of Aesthetic Judgment and Universal Taste" »

The Human Being as a Subject of Education

The fundamental question, "Is education possible?" elicits many answers, which can be reduced to two primary aspects of reflection:

• The first examines the basis of behavior and focuses on biological determinants.
• The second explores the role of the individual's own activity and the influence of the environment in shaping personality.

Scientific Anthropology: Biological Foundations

Scientific Anthropology addresses the first question, studying the humanization process from its origins to the formation of the human species.

Pedagogical Anthropology: The Humanization Process

Pedagogical Anthropology, meanwhile, analyzes the events that lead an individual to become a human being, a process known as humanization.... Continue reading "Human Development & Education: Interdependent Factors" »

Foundational Concepts in Sociology

Sociology is the science that studies, describes, and analyzes the processes of life, human beings, their social relations, and human societies.

Functions of Social Structures

Social structures, such as the family unit, fulfill several essential functions for the individual and society:

• Communication: Using verbal methods is essential for the development of emotion and affective aid.
• Affection and Love: The relationship of affection or love is essential for the normal development of the individual.
• Support: Providing multi-forms of support (economic, emotional, etc.).
• Adaptability: Maintaining internal relational processes. Family adaptation processes arise as a function of the different stages of their life cycle.

Defining Aggression: Hostile vs. Instrumental

It is essential to distinguish between two primary types of aggression:

• Hostile Aggression: The main objective is to inflict physical or psychological harm on another individual.
• Instrumental Aggression: This occurs in the pursuit of a non-aggressive goal, where harm is a means to an end rather than the end itself.

Key Psychological Theories of Aggression

Several theories attempt to explain the roots of aggressive behavior.

Instinct Theory

This theory posits that humans have an innate, hardwired instinct to be aggressive, making its manifestation inevitable.

Biological Theories

From a biological perspective, aggression is linked to natural impulses. Proponents suggest that activities like sports programs... Continue reading "The Psychology of Aggression and Sports-Related Violence" »

Core Concepts of Science and Research

Science: The systematically organized set of recorded knowledge.

Classification of Science

By Practical Use

• Applied Science: Knowledge directly useful for solving specific problems.
• Basic Science: Seeks to develop knowledge driven by the desire to learn, regardless of practical application.

By Object of Study

• Formal Sciences: Deals with ideas that do not exist in the physical world (creations of the human mind).
• Factual Sciences: Deals with objects with real existence (physical, chemical, biological).

Technology: A set of theories and techniques used in the practical application and use of scientific knowledge.

Scientific Disclosure: Making objective and valid products of scientific research available to interested... Continue reading "Essential Concepts of Scientific Research and Methodology" »