Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Cognitive and Social Development Milestones

Theory of Mind and Perspectivism

According to studies, the approach to theory of mind allows for perspectivism: (C) The preoperational child identifies beliefs and desires in others.

Infant Perception

The fact that the human face is a highly attractive stimulus for the baby indicates that: (B) It possesses brightness, color, sound, and movement qualities that attract the infant most.

Knowledge Construction

"Only the action of the baby can build their knowledge of the world?": (C) No, because the infant also has capabilities to view and interact with objects and people.

Formal Thought and Reality

Indicate the correct choice: (A) The understanding of reality from explanatory hypotheses, rather than only perceptual... Continue reading "Developmental Psychology: Key Concepts and Cognitive Milestones" »

Psychological Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence

Childhood Mental Health Conditions

Childhood Depression

Unlike depression in adults, childhood depression manifests differently. Symptoms often include low school performance, irritability, and restlessness.

Adaptive Difficulties in Children

Difficulties in adapting to new situations, often resulting in behavioral changes, can occur following external changes such as parental separation or divorce.

Childhood Behavioral Issues

Behavioral issues are common forms of expression in children. These manifestations can be generalized or situational.

Common Childhood Fears and Anxieties

• Age 4: Fears often include the dark, being alone, imaginary beings, animals, and natural elements like thunder.
• Age 8: Fears

These tests are a series of tests that will help us evaluate the puppy's response to different stimuli presented and information about the personality traits examined. Analyze the dog's temperament is his way of behaving and reacting a result of their genetic potential. Be made to the 8 weeks since the experience and learned behavior is minimal, therefore the probability of observing their inherited traits is high.

To perform the test, we must consider the following factors:

1) The task at hand from the puppy: Depending on the task that the puppy will develop in the future will need a certain level in their features.

2) Standard: Depending on your standard, some features require a higher level than another (a German Shepherd with a very high... Continue reading "Which of the following elements make up the personality of an individual ()" »

The Hypothetical-Deductive Method: Core Principles

The method of experimental science is called the hypothetical-deductive method. (From Greek 'meta-odos', meaning 'the way after' or 'pursuit of a path'.) The main element of this method is the hypothesis. A hypothesis is a general statement that establishes a causal relationship between two types of natural phenomena that are linked or associated. For example: "Whenever A appears, B will always follow."

This type of relationship establishes a universal and necessary causal connection. For example, "All bodies are attracted to the Earth with an acceleration of 9.8 m/s²" is a hypothesis.

Formulating Predictions

Once a hypothesis is formulated, we proceed to make a prediction. A prediction is a statement... Continue reading "Scientific Inquiry: The Hypothetical-Deductive Approach" »

Primary Socialization

Stage

This occurs during the early years of life.

Features

• Acquisition of norms and customs.
• Powered and favored by emotional ties.
• There is no deliberation or awareness of this process.
• Essential for the integral formation of the individual.
• Interference or disruptions could have irreversible consequences.

Examples

• Language acquisition.
• Learning social customs.
• Assimilation of rules and values.

Mechanisms

• Imitation
• Rewards and punishments

Secondary Socialization

Stage

This process occurs throughout an individual's life.

Features

• Involves readjustment to changes in the environment.
• Based on emotional relationships and other interests.
• It is a conscious and deliberate process.
• Represents a less intense form of socialization.
• It is more effective

Función del Documento de Investigación

El documento de un proyecto de investigación presenta la información de la misma. Su función es dar a conocer cómo se realizará la investigación y tiene tres fines principales:

• Medio de control: Para el control externo o interno de la investigación.
• Programación: Detalla el hardware y software necesarios para realizar las tareas de investigación.
• Contratación: Define el valor del contrato y es esencial para su contextualización.

Proceso de Desarrollo del Proyecto

El desarrollo del proyecto considera varios contextos:

1. Contexto de la demanda: Se aborda a través de preguntas clave como: ¿de parte de quién surge el requerimiento?, ¿con qué motivo?, ¿qué finalidad práctica se persigue?
2. Contexto

Gender and Sex: Defining the Differences

Sexuality appears to us as an area of highly complex human behavior, which is undergoing fundamental change in contemporary societies. The term "sex" is ambiguous. As commonly used, it indicates the physical and cultural differences that exist between men and women (the male and female) as well as the sexual act itself. It is useful to distinguish between sex in the physiological or biological sense of the term, and gender, a cultural construct (a set of learned behavior patterns).

The Process of Gender Socialization

Some people argue that the behavioral differences between the sexes are genetically determined. However, gender socialization begins as soon as the baby is born. Even parents who believe they... Continue reading "Sociological Perspectives on Gender and Sexuality" »

Origins of Participatory Action Research

The deeply transformative change in Action Research (AR) occurred in the 1970s due to the incorporation of two streams of social mobilization in South America:

• The popular education movement created by Paulo Freire in Brazil.
• The Theory of Liberation.

This momentum was carried out by researchers such as Orlando Fals Borda. The group moved toward a critical new concept further defined as Participatory Action Research (PAR).

Methodology and Social Praxis

IAP (Investigación-Acción Participativa) is conceived as a research methodology in which the subject and object develop symmetrically, horizontally, and operationally within social, economic, or political spheres, representing a commitment to social praxis.... Continue reading "Social Transformation Through Participatory Action Research" »

Declarative Memory (Knowing What)

Declarative (knowing what). This memory stores information and knowledge of events. These facts and memories form the body of knowledge of a person and allow us to express our thoughts.

Types of Declarative Memory

There are two types of declarative memory:

• Episodic Memory

  It is the personal memory that allows us to remember dates, facts, or experienced episodes at a specific time and place. It stores life events and also the circumstances where the knowledge was acquired. The source is episodic memory and sensory perception; the information contained is organized in time.

• Semantic Memory

  Stores the knowledge of language and the world, entirely independent of the circumstances of its learning. Cultural understanding

1. Historical Perspective on Motor Development

The study of motor development spans over 200 years, beginning with early observations by Tiedemann (1787) and Pestalozzi (1774). Notably, Darwin (1877) provided a biographical description of his son's visual-motor and cephalocaudal development.

2. European Perspectives

• J. de Ajuriaguerra: Focus on infantile psychomotor development.
• Azemar: Analysis of holokinesias and ideokinesias in children.
• E. Pikler: Theories on global motor development.
• J. Le Boulch: The psychomotor development approach.
• V. da Fonseca: The psychosociobiological approximation.

3. American Perspectives

• H. Williams: The concept of perceptuomotor development.
• E.J. Cratty: The four-channel model of development.
• D.L. Gallahue: Theoretical