Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Observational Learning

Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory argues that much human learning occurs in the social environment. By observing and imitating others, human beings acquire knowledge, skills, attitudes, etc.

Components of Social Cognitive Theory

Bandura synthesizes elements of reinforcement schemes and the theory of information processing.

Conduct + Personal Factors + Environment

Another basic component of this theory is Bandura's distinction between active learning and vicarious learning. While active learning is learning by doing, vicarious learning is learning by watching others.

Vicarious learning accelerates behavior and helps avoid negative consequences.

Bandura distinguishes well between the acquisition of knowledge (learning)

Brain Hemispheres

Left Hemisphere

Receives information from the right side of the body. Dominates verbal tasks such as identification of spoken words and written speech.

Right Hemisphere

Receives information from the left side of the body. Involved in visual-spatial tasks, non-verbal imagery (visual images, music, environmental noise), face recognition, and the perception and expression of emotions.

Brain Lobes

Occipital Lobe

Receives and processes visual information. Involved in experiencing shapes, color, and motion in the environment.

Temporal Lobe

Involved in visual tasks like face recognition, processing smell, receiving and processing information from the ears, helping with body balance, and regulating emotions and motivations like anxiety, pleasure,... Continue reading "Brain Structure and Memory Functions" »

Quantitative Research

3. Experimentation

What it is: It is the controlled and systematic observation of the effects that occur when you manipulate variables — one or more characteristics of the experimental situation — with the aim of establishing causal relationships between variables.

How

How: Construction and application of the independent variable, regulated upon whom, when and where.

Features

• Manipulation of the independent variable (the experimental treatment).
• Control of context.
• Subjects, equalization and experimental groups.

Problems

• Difficulty of manipulating variables.
• The experimental situation is artificial; because control must be built, it is difficult to generalize.
• Experimenter effects may influence the results.
• Ethical handling.

4.

Behaviorism

Appendix: Characteristics of Science

The criticisms that have been made of psychoanalysis have focused on the fundamental idea that psychoanalysis is not adapted to the requirements for a theory to be characterized as scientific. We shall therefore look very briefly at these requirements before continuing with the various trends in psychology.

Aside from the problem that creates the division between empirical and experimental sciences (Physics, Chemistry, Biology) and human or social sciences, there are a number of basic issues that science must share:

1. They deal with phenomena occurring in the physical world.
2. They begin with some common assumptions:
   • Determinism: It is assumed that the world, particularly the object of study of each discipline,

Learning styles are cognitive, affective, and physiological indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to their learning environments.

Understanding Learning Styles

When we discuss learning styles, we consider cognitive traits, including insights from cognitive psychology that explain individual differences in knowledge acquisition. This characteristic cognitive aspect is expressed as cognitive styles.

Key Cognitive Factors in Learning Styles

Four key areas help us define these cognitive factors:

• Field Dependence-Independence
• Conceptualization and Categorization
• Reflexivity versus Impulsivity
• Sensory Modalities

Field Dependence-Independence Explained

The factor of field dependence-independence has been studied by many authors who... Continue reading "Understanding Individual Learning Styles for Effective Education" »

Piaget's Preoperational Stage (Ages 2-7)

The developmental period spanning from 2 to 7 years, as defined by Piaget in his study of children's intellectual development, is called the stage of preoperational thought.

Essential Characteristics of Preoperational Thought

This stage is characterized by a significant increase in the use and complexity of symbols. This symbolic ability allows children to think about things that are not physically present and engage in symbolic play (simulation).

The most important difference between children in this stage and infants under 2 years old is the robust use of symbolic representation.

• Symbolic Thought: Thinking using words, objects, or actions to represent ideas.

Early Mathematical Skills in Infants

According... Continue reading "Cognitive Development: Piaget's Preoperational Stage and Early Math Skills" »

Characteristics of the Self in Preschool Years

Children in preschool tend to describe themselves based on observable attributes.

Egocentrism

According to Piaget, egocentrism is the inability to understand another person's perspective.

Schemas and Scripts

Schemas and scripts help children organize and recall events in a structured way.

Self-Esteem

Self-esteem develops from a concrete understanding to a more abstract and multi-dimensional one.

Operational Thinking

False: Operational thinking is not characterized by irreversibility of thought.

Event Schemas

Temporal relationships connect the elements of an event schema or script.

Self-Concept (2-6 years)

False: Children between 2 and 6 years old are not typically hypercritical of themselves.

Reversibility

Reversibility,... Continue reading "Child Development: Cognitive and Social-Emotional Growth in Preschool Years" »

Spiritual Materialism

The spiritual monist conception of human beings is the opposite of materialistic monism. According to spiritualists, also called idealists, all reality is mental. What we call matter is simply a creation of the mind. Thus, the human being is conceived as a mind that perceives itself as being. These beings, including their own bodies, only exist as perceptions of the mind. In Berkeley's philosophy, reality is to perceive or be perceived. It makes no sense to speak of the existence of the body or matter as independent of the mind because all we can say about material reality comes from our perception of it. This idealistic argument will be continued in the 19th century in the philosophy of Hegel.

Intermediate Monism

The Dutch... Continue reading "Understanding the Human Being: A Philosophical and Scientific Exploration of Mind and Body" »

Top 10 Strategies for Boosting Student Motivation

Effective teaching requires implementing specific strategies designed to activate and sustain student engagement. Below are ten proven techniques rooted in educational psychology and performance enhancement.

1. Structuring Tasks and Practice

   Motivation can be encouraged by structuring practice situations using varied materials and gradually increasing the degree of difficulty. Aim to stay one step ahead of the student's current level to ensure they enjoy the challenge and remain engaged.

2. Evaluating and Acknowledging Effort

   It is crucial to assess and acknowledge effort, not just results. Studies emphasize the positive impact of expressing a positive attitude when evaluating the effort a student demonstrates.

Obsessional Neurosis

Obsessive Character

• Organization of Personality Pathology: Marked by particular mental fatigue at symptomatic and psychological levels. This state is often associated with feeling mentally drained and ineffective in practical matters.
• Compulsive System: Essential for controlling anxiety, often manifesting through thoughts resembling magical rites.
• Behavioral Traits: Exhibits traits of anal-retentive regression and egotistical behavior. There is often a fondness for order, such as libraries, yet they react strongly to disorder, leading to tendencies toward sorting, cleaning, and maintaining propriety.

Apparent Symptoms

• Obsessions: Involuntary emergence of anxiety-provoking thoughts or images that are pathogenic to the self.
• Identical