Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Ask a Question

   The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?

   For a science fair project, some teachers require that the question be something you can measure, preferably with a number.

2. Do Background Research

   Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and internet research to help you find the best way to do things and ensure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.

3. Construct a Hypothesis

   A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is an attempt to answer your question with an explanation that can be tested. A good hypothesis

Miller and Mowrer's Theory

They maintain that while painful stimulation motivates escape behavior after a harmful experience, anxiogenic stimuli stand between the individual and the harmful situation, serving as a protective barrier in space and time.

Miller goes on to say that anxiogenic stimuli may become independent of their original position, thereby gaining autonomy and becoming automated, so that anxiety transforms from an adaptive situation into a pathological situation.

Mandler's Theory

He maintains that anxiety is caused by the disruption of behavioral processes. He does not explain this process as a barrier or obstacle to behavior. According to his theories, the process would involve the following steps:

1. Behavioral disruption leads to

Understanding Organizational Culture

Culture encompasses the fundamental assumptions shared by members of a community. These presumptions, shared thoughts, meanings, and values create a backdrop for action, often taken as obvious and undisputed.

Key Components of Culture

Analyzing culture involves understanding its components and defining features that make it unique:

• Appearance: Fixed aspects of organization and decoration, including the structuring of space.
• Patterns of Behavior: Systematic collective life within the organization.
• Language: Use of metaphors, stories, legends, and myths.
• Implicit Rules: Unwritten norms and standards governing conduct.
• Values: Used to judge facts, actions, and people.
• Assumptions: Basic beliefs shared by members of

The Science of Administration

Administration is a factual science focused on organizations. It involves specific techniques and methods to achieve operational efficiency.

It encompasses principles, standards, and procedures for effective organizational management. Beyond explaining organizational behavior, administration provides rules, norms, and procedures to operate and transform organizations.

The Need for Administration

Administration is a natural and essential aspect of all human organizations. Historically, organizations have required control over activities like accounting, finance, and marketing. Effective decision-making is crucial for achieving goals efficiently. Therefore, organizations develop strategies and methods to facilitate... Continue reading "Science and Technology in Administration" »

Research Methodologies in Communication

Data Collection Methods

Field Work

Advantages: Rich, deep, flexible insights into real-life situations.

Limitations: Limited generalizability due to small community focus.

Surveys/Polls

Advantages: Large sample sizes, easy quantification and comparison, facilitates data analysis.

Limitations: Limited qualitative information, potential for dishonesty, lack of flexibility and nuance, superficial insights.

Laboratory Experiments

Advantages: Replicable, controlled variables, easy generalization.

Limitations: Artificial setting, difficult extrapolation to real life, potential for experimental bias.

Life Stories/Interviews

Advantages: Rich, in-depth information, allows study of evolving actions and beliefs, close to everyday... Continue reading "Communication Synergies & Intercultural Communication" »