Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Child Sexual Abuse: Identifying High-Risk Factors

Understanding the factors that increase a child's vulnerability to sexual abuse is crucial for prevention and intervention. Several key areas contribute to a child being at high risk:

Gender-Based Risk

Traditionally, the female sex has been considered at higher risk. Various studies consistently indicate a significantly higher incidence of sexual abuse among girls, often cited as 2-3 girls for every boy, especially in cases of intrafamilial sexual abuse. This disparity is primarily attributed to the fact that most abusers are heterosexual males.

Age-Related Vulnerability

The ages of greatest risk are typically between 6-7 years and 10-12 years. Research suggests that more than twice as many cases... Continue reading "Child Sexual Abuse: Risk Factors and Offender Motivations" »

Types of Reinforcement

Bandura identifies three forms of reinforcement that promote learning by observation:

1. Direct Reinforcement: Reinforcing the observer directly when they reproduce the model's behavior.

2. Indirect or Vicarious Reinforcement: Reinforcing the model. Observing the consequences of others' behavior can modify behavior similarly to direct experience. Vicarious reinforcement:

• a) Informs observers about appropriate behavior based on success and failure patterns.
• b) Enhances practical learning through direct experience, as multiple observers can be exposed to the modeled behavior simultaneously.
• c) Reduces attention demands compared to direct experience.

3. Self-Reinforcement: Controlling one's own reinforcements without expecting... Continue reading "Observational Learning: Reinforcement and Classroom Application" »

Observation: Concepts and Features

Observation is an inherent part of human nature, integrated into our psychology in relation to everyday events. It involves the perception of a phenomenon that is selected and recorded without manipulation, making the observer a passive witness of what has occurred.

Observation can vary in its degree of systematization, ranging from casual observation to those that adhere to strict methodological criteria.

Observation becomes a scientific technique when it meets the following criteria:

• It is part of an objective investigation.
• It is stated and recorded systematically.
• It is subject to checks and controls regarding validity and reliability.

Types of Observation

Self-Observation

Self-observation occurs when the observer... Continue reading "Understanding Observation: Types and Techniques" »

What are the Functions of Assessment?

The role of assessment includes formative assessment, diagnostic evaluation, forecast evaluation, and function-oriented evaluation.

What is Diagnostic Assessment?

Diagnostic assessment is performed prior to the development of the educational process. To perform a diagnostic evaluation, different procedures can be used, such as written questions, oral exchanges with the group on the topic of interest, and observing the student in their work related to the themes.

What is Formative Assessment?

This assessment is the most important in the educational process because it provides the student with feedback (and of course, feedback to the teacher) regarding their performance. It indicates what has been achieved, what... Continue reading "Understanding Educational Assessment: Types, Functions, and Tools" »

Aesthetic Experience, Aisthesis, and Hermeneusis

The set of aesthetic experiences includes *judgments* (or *judicative acts*) and moments of catharsis. *Aisthesis* (sensory perception) includes, in turn, a *hermeneusis*—that is, a dimension of assessment and interpretation. This evaluative-judgmental activity is assigned to taste, corresponding with the rehabilitation of the lower faculties: sensation and feeling.

Axiological Intuition and the Perceptual-Evaluative Act

Axiological intuition, which accompanies sensible intuition and perception, forms a unified experiential, perceptual-evaluative act. Perception (sensible intuition) gives us the object (nature), which is a correlate of the act, always incomplete and open. The thing appears *foreshortened*... Continue reading "The Phenomenology of Aesthetic Judgment and Universal Taste" »

The Human Being as a Subject of Education

The fundamental question, "Is education possible?" elicits many answers, which can be reduced to two primary aspects of reflection:

• The first examines the basis of behavior and focuses on biological determinants.
• The second explores the role of the individual's own activity and the influence of the environment in shaping personality.

Scientific Anthropology: Biological Foundations

Scientific Anthropology addresses the first question, studying the humanization process from its origins to the formation of the human species.

Pedagogical Anthropology: The Humanization Process

Pedagogical Anthropology, meanwhile, analyzes the events that lead an individual to become a human being, a process known as humanization.... Continue reading "Human Development & Education: Interdependent Factors" »

Foundational Concepts in Sociology

Sociology is the science that studies, describes, and analyzes the processes of life, human beings, their social relations, and human societies.

Functions of Social Structures

Social structures, such as the family unit, fulfill several essential functions for the individual and society:

• Communication: Using verbal methods is essential for the development of emotion and affective aid.
• Affection and Love: The relationship of affection or love is essential for the normal development of the individual.
• Support: Providing multi-forms of support (economic, emotional, etc.).
• Adaptability: Maintaining internal relational processes. Family adaptation processes arise as a function of the different stages of their life cycle.

Defining Aggression: Hostile vs. Instrumental

It is essential to distinguish between two primary types of aggression:

• Hostile Aggression: The main objective is to inflict physical or psychological harm on another individual.
• Instrumental Aggression: This occurs in the pursuit of a non-aggressive goal, where harm is a means to an end rather than the end itself.

Key Psychological Theories of Aggression

Several theories attempt to explain the roots of aggressive behavior.

Instinct Theory

This theory posits that humans have an innate, hardwired instinct to be aggressive, making its manifestation inevitable.

Biological Theories

From a biological perspective, aggression is linked to natural impulses. Proponents suggest that activities like sports programs... Continue reading "The Psychology of Aggression and Sports-Related Violence" »

Core Concepts of Science and Research

Science: The systematically organized set of recorded knowledge.

Classification of Science

By Practical Use

• Applied Science: Knowledge directly useful for solving specific problems.
• Basic Science: Seeks to develop knowledge driven by the desire to learn, regardless of practical application.

By Object of Study

• Formal Sciences: Deals with ideas that do not exist in the physical world (creations of the human mind).
• Factual Sciences: Deals with objects with real existence (physical, chemical, biological).

Technology: A set of theories and techniques used in the practical application and use of scientific knowledge.

Scientific Disclosure: Making objective and valid products of scientific research available to interested... Continue reading "Essential Concepts of Scientific Research and Methodology" »

Research Designs

Non-Experimental Design

In this design, the independent variable cannot be manipulated to produce an effect on the dependent variable. This is because the events have already occurred, or certain variables cannot be altered.

Types of Non-Experimental Design

• Transversal Design

  Gathers information about a problem category at a single point in time, using different groups of cases.

• Longitudinal Design

  Gathers information about a problem category over time, using the same cases at different intervals.

Experimental Design

A design where the independent variable can be manipulated to generate changes in the dependent variable, typically within a controlled situation.

Types of Experimental Design

• Field Research

  Conducted in a real or natural