Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Russian Formalism: Foundations of Literary Theory

Russian Formalism designates an intellectual movement that marks the birth of literary theory and literary criticism as autonomous disciplines. It also significantly influenced the evolution of linguistic studies. From its outset, Russian Formalism encompassed a range of studies and theories that, while far from homogenous, shared a common approach: treating literature based on a specific object of study – "literariness."

Defining Literariness and Scientific Status

In defining "literariness" – the essential property of every literary work – Formalism sought to confer scientific status upon the study of literature. The movement was born during the First World War in pre-revolutionary Russia.... Continue reading "Russian Formalism: Defining Literary Study" »

Foundations of Psychology: Core Concepts

Psychology

The study of individuals' internal processes and the forces that occur within their physical and social environments.

Scientific Method

A set of ordered steps used to analyze and solve problems.

Behavior

Actions that help organisms adapt to an environment. This includes observable behaviors such as laughing, mourning, etc.

Mental Processes

The functioning of the human mind.

Psychologists

They focus largely on the behavior of individuals. Their goals include:

• Description: Sticking to observable information.
• Explanation: Understanding that observable behavior is influenced by a number of factors, such as internal genetic composition, motivation, intelligence, and self-esteem.
• Prediction: Making statements

1. Pearson Chi-Square Test

Variables

• X: Anxiety
• Y: Voltage

Hypotheses

• H0: Anxiety is not associated with stress.
• H1: Anxiety is associated with stress.

Results

• P-value: 0.0021
• Decision: There is insufficient evidence to conclude that anxiety is associated with stress, considering a 1% significance level.

2. Pearson Correlation Analysis

Variables

• X: Current Salary
• Y: Starting Salary

Hypotheses

• H0: Current Salary is not associated with starting salary.
• H1: Current Salary is associated with starting salary.

Results

• P-value: 0.000
• Decision: There is insufficient evidence to conclude a significant correlation between starting salary and current salary, considering a 1% significance level.

3. Levene's Test for Homogeneity of Variances

Variables

• X: Level of education group

Sociology: Individual, Society, and Culture

Understanding the Individual in Sociology

The individual refers to what is proper and specific to a subject. The term individual need not refer to a human being but can encompass any living organism belonging to a species, whether animal or vegetable. We primarily use this term to refer to human beings, highlighting their unique, inherent characteristics.

This concept can integrate different perspectives:

• For biological determinists, the unique and specific aspects of each individual are rooted in their genetic makeup.
• For social or educational determinists, the unique and specific traits of an individual are derived from culture and social context.
• From an integrative approach, there are two essential

Social Skills: Foundations of Effective Interaction

Defining Social Skills

Social Skills: A set of behaviors that enable individuals to act more effectively in their relationships.

Components of Communication

• Verbal Components

  Elements of speech and its content.

• Nonverbal Components

  Uses the body, movement, and sounds (rather than words) to convey information and support verbal messages.

  Types of Nonverbal Communication Functions:

  • Secure
  • Replace
  • Emphasize
  • Contradict
  • Regulate interaction

• Paralinguistic Components

  Vocal elements of communication, regardless of verbal content.

  Types of Paralinguistic Elements:

  • Voice volume
  • Intonation
  • Fluency
  • Speech speed
  • Clarity
  • Speech timing

Key Concepts in Nonverbal Communication

• Kinesics

  The study of body movements.

  Types of Kinesic

What is Research?

Research is a complex process that involves describing, explaining, generalizing, and where possible, predicting. It starts when someone raises a problem and wants to find a solution or answer. It analyzes and identifies its elements, establishes relationships, and then explains them. If satisfactory, it attempts to apply the findings to other similar cases and may try to determine how these or similar phenomena will behave in the future.

Research in Social Sciences

In social sciences research, the problem is objectivity, since the person who investigates is the subject as well as the object being studied. Generalization and prediction (key steps in research) are not always applicable to social sciences.

Research Stages

1. Select

Elicited Behaviors and Reflexes

Types of Stimuli

Eliciting Stimuli: These stimuli trigger reflex responses or respondents (e.g., a puncture).

Reinforcing Stimuli: Environmental consequences that follow responses, increasing their frequency (e.g., a child repeating a word for attention).

Discriminative Stimuli: Stimuli that accompany responses without producing them, signaling when it's appropriate to respond (e.g., light).

Neutral Stimuli: Stimuli that have no effect on a particular behavior.

Types of Responses

Respondent Behaviors: Reactions triggered by eliciting stimuli. Automatic reactions.

Operant or Instrumental Responses: Responses emitted spontaneously by organisms, modified by environmental consequences.

Instinctive Behavior

Also called fixed... Continue reading "Understanding Elicited Behaviors and Reflexes in Psychology" »

Basic Components of Development

• Affective Development: The capacity for emotion, controlling emotions, feelings, and passions.
• Cognitive Development: The evolution experienced by a person in notional components, intellect, and personality.
• Social Development: The process by which a person, from childhood, will cultivate skills and knowledge that will make them an active and mature member of their society.
• Moral Development: Achieving their own personal behavior, responsive to values, norms, rules, and customs accepted by the social environment in which the person grows.
• Motor Development: Development that examines changes in human motor skills from birth to old age, the factors involved in these changes, and their relation to other areas of

Early Study of Non-Verbal Signals

Since 1914 to 1940, there was considerable interest in how people communicate through facial expressions.

Disciplines in Communication Study

The investigation of communication draws from 5 disciplines: psychology, psychiatry, anthropology, sociology, and ethology.

Culture Shapes Non-Verbal Cues

We take for granted premises about masculinity and femininity that originate from culture. Human culture can provide behavior patterns consistent or not consistent with the gender of the individual. Conventions, such as how people dress or style their hair, also help convey cultural norms.

Gender, Culture, and Behavior Patterns

Studies of three different tribes showed variations in gender roles. In one, both sexes were ferocious... Continue reading "Understanding Non-Verbal Communication Research" »

Scope and Limits of Corpus Formation

Formation of a shared corpus by psychologists: selection and hierarchy of criteria according to the public. Theoretical and methodological explanations advance in a clear direction.

Limits:

• Generally qualitative
• Primarily fit-adaptive systems assessed by the extent to which they describe and explain behavior

The Experimental Method in Psychology

Aims to discover the effects of one variable on another.

• Dependent variables: Observed behavior or effect.
• Independent variables: The treatment manipulated by the researcher.

Beginning with a scientifically solvable problem, a hypothesis is proposed and empirically verified (numerically). During the experiment, data collection is performed using measuring instruments.

Limitations: