Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

Assessment in Primary Education

• It is an integral part of the teaching-learning process.
• It is a fundamental component of the curriculum.
• It focuses on the student, classroom, and center.
• Objectives and curriculum serve as references.
• It is a means for continuous improvement.
• Assessment techniques must be consistent with the learning objectives.

Purpose and Objectives of Assessment

• Its primary purpose is to improve educational intervention.
• Specific objectives include:
• Monitoring the progress of children.
• Evaluating teaching practices.
• Assessing the functioning of the educational center.
• Evaluating student progress, teaching methods, and the center's effectiveness.

Characteristics of Effective Assessment

• Global: It should assess the full range of children'

... Continue reading "Effective Assessment in Primary Education: Techniques & Practices" »

1.4.2 Attention

Attention is the capacity that allows us to focus awareness on what we need at any given moment.

1. Stimulus Factors

The intensity and predictability of a stimulus influence attention:

• Greater intensity captures more attention.
• Unexpected stimuli are more attention-grabbing.

2. Personal Factors

Willingness and internal states affect attention:

• Fatigue, sleepiness, and hunger negatively impact attention span.
• Mood, mental fatigue, interest, and humor also affect attention.

Benefits of Attention

Attention enables us to:

• React to stimuli promptly.
• Discriminate desired stimuli and prevent distractions (perceptual defense).
• Maintain sustained focus on an activity.
• Perform multiple tasks effectively.

1.4.3 Memory

Memory is the ability to encode, store,... Continue reading "Enhancing Attention and Memory: Key Factors and Processes" »

Classical Conditioning: Foundations of Associative Learning

Classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian conditioning, respondent conditioning, or the stimulus-response (S-R) model, is a type of associative learning first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov.

The initial stage of this learning process illustrates a natural, unconditioned relationship between a stimulus and a response. An unconditioned stimulus (US), or natural stimulus, reliably evokes an unconditioned response (UR). For instance, dogs naturally salivate (UR) in the presence of food (US).

However, through temporal contiguity, other stimuli may also come to evoke the unconditioned response, which they did not previously. For example, if the sound of a tuning fork is presented a few seconds... Continue reading "Understanding Classical and Operant Conditioning" »

Understanding Learning and Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Refers to voluntary behavior. An instrumental behavior is one that helps us achieve certain effects.

Classical Conditioning

A learning relationship between stimuli.

Key Memory Concepts and Processes

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to acquire new information or remember events after a brain injury.

Blockade (Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon)

Occurs when an information search is frustrated, and we are unable to retrieve a specific memory, even though we feel it's accessible.

Short-Term Memory

Analyzes and organizes knowledge.

Long-Term Memory

Stores our knowledge of the physical world, social and cultural reality, autobiographical memories, language, and the meanings of concepts.

Basic Memory

... Continue reading "Essential Psychology Concepts: Memory, Thought, and Learning" »

Qualitative Research for Social Work

Qualitative Research: Special Features (p. 1)

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

• Overall Concept of Research (pp. 1-2)
• Researcher-Researched Relationship (p. 2)
• Samples (p. 2)
• Fieldwork (p. 2)
• Data Analysis (p. 2)
• Weaknesses of Qualitative Research (p. 2)

Traditions in Qualitative Research (p. 2)

• Symbolic Interactionism (p. 3)
• Ethnomethodology (pp. 3-4)
• Structuralism (p. 4)

The Contribution of Goffman (p. 4)

Qualitative Research and Social Work (pp. 4-6)

Participant Observation

Participant Observation in Research Practices (p. 7)

• Definition and Genesis of Participant Observation (pp. 7-8)
• Reflections on Participant Observation Characteristics (pp. 8-9)

Observational Research Designs (p. 9)

• Selection of Scenarios (pp. 10-

... Continue reading "Key Qualitative Methodologies in Social Work" »

Core Orientation Skills: Spatial and Temporal Awareness

Spatial Orientation: Locating Yourself and Destination

Spatial orientation is the ability for a person to be aware of their current location and know where they want to go. The methodology involves taking advantage of everyday situations.

Methodology for Spatial Intervention

The intervention in this area involves the following work, typically addressed in the order listed:

• 1. Basic Concepts in Everyday Situations

  • General terms: *in-out, top-down*, etc.
  • Specific concepts: cardinal points, road signs (traffic lights, etc.).

• 2. Working with Benchmarks (Landmarks)

  Benchmarks include significant buildings, monuments, and shops.

  The identification task begins with recognizing landmarks in the real context,

... Continue reading "Developing Spatial and Temporal Awareness Skills" »

Legal Norms: Conduct, Organization, and System Structure

Within legal norms, a fundamental distinction must be made between standards of conduct and rules of organization.

The former prescribe what should be done, attributing specific practices the deontic modalities of "compulsory," "forbidden," or "permitted." Organizational norms, conversely, establish the bodies responsible for the production and application of standards.

Hart's Conception: Primary and Secondary Rules

H.L.A. Hart proposed that in a developed legal system, there are two basic types of rules, distinct but related: primary rules and secondary rules (a classification very different from Kelsen's).

• Primary rules prescribe that human beings do or omit certain actions, regardless of

... Continue reading "Legal Systems Structure: Hart's Primary and Secondary Rules" »

Classical Conditioning

In classical conditioning, an experiment involves strengthening a response through association. For instance, if a bell (conditioned stimulus) is presented without food (unconditioned stimulus), it will not lead to a lever press for food, as that is characteristic of operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, inconsistent pairing can severely impair learning and interfere with the association.

Key Terms in Classical Conditioning:

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Any stimulus that naturally evokes a regular and measurable physiological response for a sufficiently long period.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A stimulus originally neutral, meaning it did not produce a regular and measurable response before the experimental session.

... Continue reading "Understanding Learning: Behavioral and Cognitive Theories" »

Understanding Baby's Sensory Motor Intelligence

Exploring the World Through Senses

Babies primarily use their senses and motor skills to explore and manipulate their environment. This period of cognitive development, from birth to two years old, is called "sensory motor intelligence" by Piaget. A key aspect of this stage is the child's desire to touch and interact with everything around them.

Developing Senses: Touch, Hearing, and Sight

Touch

During the first year, touch is especially developed. From the earliest days, babies manipulate objects by putting them in their mouths, exploring textures with their sensitive tongues, gums, cheeks, and lips. By six months, they can distinguish objects based on temperature, size, hardness, and texture. A... Continue reading "Sensory Motor Intelligence in Babies: Exploring the World Through Senses" »

Meaningful Learning

Occurs when new information connects to a relevant pre-existing cognitive structure. This implies that new ideas, concepts, and propositions can be learned significantly as other relevant ideas, concepts, or proposals are adequately clear and available in an individual's cognitive structure and function as an anchor point to the former.

Mechanical Learning

Occurs when there are inadequate pre-existing cognitive structures, so the new information is stored arbitrarily, without interacting with pre-existing knowledge.

Learning by Discovery

Involves students sorting information, integrating it with their cognitive structure, and reorganizing or transforming the integrated combination to produce the desired learning.

Reception Learning

The... Continue reading "Learning Theories: Meaningful, Mechanical, and Eclectic Approaches" »