Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Psychology and Sociology

1. Types of Emergencies

A. Crisis

A crisis involves frail and troubled circumstances, stemming from internal or external sources, that disrupt a system's balance and normalcy, leading to disorganization.

B. Accident

An accident affects a specific segment of the population, easily defined by a nominal variable (e.g., car occupants, event attendees, building tenants). The broader community remains unaffected, and response systems can act freely.

C. Disaster

A disaster indiscriminately affects everyone, disrupting daily life. Examples include a nuclear power plant leak, a toxic cloud, or widespread flooding. Institutional response systems may also be affected but can still potentially help.

D. Catastrophe

A catastrophe is an unexpected event affecting... Continue reading "Emergency and Disaster Management: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Types of Hypotheses

Research Hypothesis: Propositions, attempts on possible relationships between two or more variables.

• Descriptive Hypothesis Value: Sometimes used in descriptive studies to try to predict a datum or more variables to be measured.
• Correlational: Provides that two or more variables are linked.
• Group Difference: Aiming investigations were made to compare groups.
• Grounds: The relationship between variables is given by cause and effect, there is always an independent variable and a dependent one.
• Null Hypotheses: They are the reverse of the research hypothesis, it serves to refute or deny what the research hypothesis states.
• Alternative Hypotheses: They alternate between research hypothesis possibilities and the null hypothesis.

Types

Human Nature and Culture

Human Nature Coincides with the Genetic Heritage of Humanity

Human behavior would not be possible without the influence of culture. Human behavior has a genetic basis but is developed and made concrete in the company of others.

Human Behavior: The Relationship of an Animal's Activity with its Environment

Each animal responds appropriately to the demands of the environment where it lives and reacts to specific stimuli that promote or threaten its survival. Such behavior may be innate or acquired.

Innate Behavior

When behavior is innate, it is hereditary in origin, fixed, and programmed. Reflexes and instincts are the two most important forms of innate behavior.

• Reflexes: Innate motor responses caused by sensory stimulation.

Memory Disorders

Amnesia

Amnesia is the inability to retain or retrieve information, a significant memory disorder. It can stem from organic or emotional causes and may be caused by a shock to the brain.

Chronological Classification of Memory

Anterograde Amnesia

Also called amnesia of fixation, this refers to the inability to learn new information after the onset of a disorder (usually organic) causing amnesia. The patient forgets at the same pace as events unfold. By definition, it concerns recent memory. It is usually reversible, except in some post-traumatic amnesia, Korsakoff syndrome, and irreversible cases of advanced dementia.

Retrograde Amnesia

This is the inability to recall previously learned information after the onset of a disorder (usually... Continue reading "Memory Disorders: Amnesia, Hypermnesia, and More" »

Social Structure and Stratification

• Social Structure: Individuals and organizations that make up society.
• Social Hierarchy: Groups of people ranked based on income, wealth, status, or power.
• Intergenerational Mobility: Changes in social status between generations within a family.
• Social Stratification: Division of society into classes based on power.
• Social Mobility: Movement of individuals or groups within the social hierarchy.
• Meritocracy: System where power is held by those with the most ability.
• Feminization of Poverty: Growing gap between women and men in economic deprivation.

Culture and Society

• Culture: Arts and intellectual achievements of a society.
• Ethnocentrism: Evaluating other cultures based on one's own cultural standards.
• Socialization:

Labor Motivation and Theories

Multiple Choice Questions

Section 1

1. The motivation is:
   1. Security.
   2. The money.
   3. The recognition.
   4. All of the above.
2. The first level of motivation theories covers:
   1. Social needs.
   2. Basic needs.
   3. Security needs.
   4. Self-realization.
3. ILO stands for:
   1. Internal Labor Organization.
   2. International Labor Organization.
   3. International Love Organization.
   4. None of the above.
4. Notes the correct expression:
   1. The goals of a worker in a developed country are radically different from a worker in a developing country.
   2. The goals of a worker in a developed country are the same as a worker in a developing country.
   3. The goals of a worker in a developed country are slightly different from a worker in a developing country.
   4. None of the above.
5. The term mobbing means:
   1. Sexual harassment.

Elements of the Interpretation Process

The participation of sign languages in interpretation introduces specific characteristics that differentiate it from spoken language interpretation. These differences are determined by the nature of sign language and the characteristics of its users:

• Channel Differences: Oral language uses the auditory-oral channel, while sign languages use the visual-gestural channel. These variations affect physical location, visual memory, and interpretation implementation.
• Timing Differences: Spoken language is linear (consecutive words), while sign language is simultaneous (large amounts of content in a short time).
• Grammatical Flexibility: Spoken language grammar is more rigid, whereas sign language is more flexible,

Definitions of Attitude

An internal predisposition to think, feel, and act towards an object, which is learned and relatively stable. It serves as a mediator between an object and a series of responses from the subject.

Refers to the structure of long-term memory, based on the internalization of scripts (schemas) that encompass a set of beliefs, feelings, and potential behaviors relevant to given situations.

A lasting organization of beliefs and cognitions in general, endowed with an emotional charge for or against a definite object, which predisposes an individual to act consistently with the cognitions and emotions related to that object.

Attitude Structure and Components

The complexity of an attitude implies that it incorporates the following... Continue reading "Understanding Attitudes: Definition, Structure, and Functions" »

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of human activity. It is considered a science because it attempts to approach its subject matter according to the requirements of scientific methodology (formulating hypotheses, comparing them, etc.). The study of human psychology includes the study of behavior (observable behavior such as movement, verbal behavior, nonverbal behavior, etc.), cognitive processes, and emotions.

Research in Psychology

The scientific study to which we referred above typically includes a series of stages:

• Formulation of the problem
• Formulating hypotheses or objectives
• Defining the variables
• Establishment of research design
• Execution of research design
• Obtaining results
• Data analysis
• Drawing conclusions

A final stage... Continue reading "Understanding Psychology: A Comprehensive Look at Its Branches and Applications" »

Culture and Socialization

Culture: When using the term "culture" in everyday conversation, it is generally considered equivalent to the higher aspects of the mind, like art, literature, music, and painting. Sociologists' use of the term includes such activities, but also others. Culture has to do with the lifestyles of members of a society or of groups within it. This includes dress, marriage customs and family life, work patterns, religious ceremonies, and pastimes.

"Culture" is conceptually distinct from "society," but there is a close relationship between both concepts. A society is a system of relationships that bind individuals. No culture could exist without society, but equally, there can be a society devoid of culture. Without culture,... Continue reading "Understanding Culture and Socialization in Society" »