Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Psychology and Sociology

Types of Behavior

Aggressive Behavior

Individuals exhibiting aggressive behavior use violence, which can be verbal (e.g., yelling, insults), physical (e.g., threatening posture, personal attack), or psychological (e.g., contempt, indifference).

Passive/Inhibited Behavior

Passive or inhibited behavior involves prioritizing others' needs and interests over one's own. This can lead to avoiding confrontations and discussions to maintain status and affection within a group.

Assertive Behavior

Assertive behavior is rooted in respect for oneself and others. It involves expressing thoughts and feelings openly, upholding one's rights while respecting the rights of others.

Cognitive Functions

Cognitive functions are the processes through which individuals acquire,... Continue reading "Understanding Cognitive Functions and Behavior" »

Intelligence and Learning

Intelligence

Intelligence: A person's capacity to learn, understand, reason, and synthesize knowledge, enabling them to respond and adapt to circumstances.

Theories of Intelligence

One of the most widely accepted theories: Factors of Intelligence.

This theory posits that individual differences in cognitive abilities can be expressed in terms of several distinct, yet not completely independent, mental abilities. These factors include:

• Verbal Ability
• Numerical Ability
• Verbal Fluency
• Reasoning
• Perceptual Ability
• Spatial Ability

Sensory-Perceptual Process

Sensory Process: The process by which humans receive information from our environment through the senses (physiological stage).

Perceptual Process: The organization and interpretation... Continue reading "Human Intelligence, Perception, and Learning Methods" »

Emotions

Types of Affection

Emotion

• Strong, immediate, and short-lived emotional reactions.
• Clear organ involvement.
• Relatively standardized behavioral response.

Feeling

• Diffuse, softer, and durable affective reactions.
• Mild organic and behavioral reaction.

Dimensions of Emotions

• Tone: How the emotion is experienced (positive-negative, pleasant-unpleasant).
• Intensity: Degree of physiological arousal (blushing, trembling), personal experience (feeling a strong emotion), and later behavior (more or less strong reaction).
• Duration: Short or long-lasting.

Biological or Mental Issue?

• Zajonc: Emotions are biological processes, preceding or following cognition but distinctly different.
• Lazarus-Ellis-Beck: Emotion is post-cognitive. Interpretation of the situation

Observation as a Process

1. Concept of observation as a process:

It is a process whose primary role is to gather information about the subject under consideration. It is an intellectual process.

Assessing vs. Observing

2. Difference in assessing and observing:

Assessment is directed toward a decision, separating the evaluation of the trial. Observing aims to understand and articulate the behavior of all participants in a situation.

Observer Attitudes

3. Observer attitudes:

Factors include the observer's sex, personal characteristics, ethical character, and social background.

Categories of Factors

4. Categories of factors:

These include stable internal factors (ability, skill), unstable internal factors (effort, will), stable external factors (task difficulty)... Continue reading "Observation Techniques: Process, Types, and Functions" »

Assessment in Primary Education

• It is an integral part of the teaching-learning process.
• It is a fundamental component of the curriculum.
• It focuses on the student, classroom, and center.
• Objectives and curriculum serve as references.
• It is a means for continuous improvement.
• Assessment techniques must be consistent with the learning objectives.

Purpose and Objectives of Assessment

• Its primary purpose is to improve educational intervention.
• Specific objectives include:
• Monitoring the progress of children.
• Evaluating teaching practices.
• Assessing the functioning of the educational center.
• Evaluating student progress, teaching methods, and the center's effectiveness.

Characteristics of Effective Assessment

• Global: It should assess the full range of children'

1.4.2 Attention

Attention is the capacity that allows us to focus awareness on what we need at any given moment.

1. Stimulus Factors

The intensity and predictability of a stimulus influence attention:

• Greater intensity captures more attention.
• Unexpected stimuli are more attention-grabbing.

2. Personal Factors

Willingness and internal states affect attention:

• Fatigue, sleepiness, and hunger negatively impact attention span.
• Mood, mental fatigue, interest, and humor also affect attention.

Benefits of Attention

Attention enables us to:

• React to stimuli promptly.
• Discriminate desired stimuli and prevent distractions (perceptual defense).
• Maintain sustained focus on an activity.
• Perform multiple tasks effectively.

1.4.3 Memory

Memory is the ability to encode, store,... Continue reading "Enhancing Attention and Memory: Key Factors and Processes" »

Understanding Baby's Sensory Motor Intelligence

Exploring the World Through Senses

Babies primarily use their senses and motor skills to explore and manipulate their environment. This period of cognitive development, from birth to two years old, is called "sensory motor intelligence" by Piaget. A key aspect of this stage is the child's desire to touch and interact with everything around them.

Developing Senses: Touch, Hearing, and Sight

Touch

During the first year, touch is especially developed. From the earliest days, babies manipulate objects by putting them in their mouths, exploring textures with their sensitive tongues, gums, cheeks, and lips. By six months, they can distinguish objects based on temperature, size, hardness, and texture. A... Continue reading "Sensory Motor Intelligence in Babies: Exploring the World Through Senses" »

Meaningful Learning

Occurs when new information connects to a relevant pre-existing cognitive structure. This implies that new ideas, concepts, and propositions can be learned significantly as other relevant ideas, concepts, or proposals are adequately clear and available in an individual's cognitive structure and function as an anchor point to the former.

Mechanical Learning

Occurs when there are inadequate pre-existing cognitive structures, so the new information is stored arbitrarily, without interacting with pre-existing knowledge.

Learning by Discovery

Involves students sorting information, integrating it with their cognitive structure, and reorganizing or transforming the integrated combination to produce the desired learning.

Reception Learning

The... Continue reading "Learning Theories: Meaningful, Mechanical, and Eclectic Approaches" »

Types of Reinforcement

Bandura identifies three forms of reinforcement that promote learning by observation:

1. Direct Reinforcement: Reinforcing the observer directly when they reproduce the model's behavior.

2. Indirect or Vicarious Reinforcement: Reinforcing the model. Observing the consequences of others' behavior can modify behavior similarly to direct experience. Vicarious reinforcement:

• a) Informs observers about appropriate behavior based on success and failure patterns.
• b) Enhances practical learning through direct experience, as multiple observers can be exposed to the modeled behavior simultaneously.
• c) Reduces attention demands compared to direct experience.

3. Self-Reinforcement: Controlling one's own reinforcements without expecting... Continue reading "Observational Learning: Reinforcement and Classroom Application" »

Observation: Concepts and Features

Observation is an inherent part of human nature, integrated into our psychology in relation to everyday events. It involves the perception of a phenomenon that is selected and recorded without manipulation, making the observer a passive witness of what has occurred.

Observation can vary in its degree of systematization, ranging from casual observation to those that adhere to strict methodological criteria.

Observation becomes a scientific technique when it meets the following criteria:

• It is part of an objective investigation.
• It is stated and recorded systematically.
• It is subject to checks and controls regarding validity and reliability.

Types of Observation

Self-Observation

Self-observation occurs when the observer... Continue reading "Understanding Observation: Types and Techniques" »