Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Psychology and Sociology

Cognition, Perception, and Knowledge

• Cognition: The processes a system uses to acquire, store, represent, use, and respond to signals/information from the body and environment (e.g., body signals, environmental stimuli).

• Cognition: The mental operations that support people’s acquisition and use of knowledge.

• Conscious Cognition: Thought processes we are aware of, such as reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving.

• Non-conscious Cognition: Mental processes that occur automatically, without conscious awareness, such as perception, memory retrieval, and habitual actions.

• All aspects of cognition are... INTERTWINED

• Top-down Processing: Processes (i.e., knowledge-based; e.g., thought and motivations) influence what we detect, attend to, and perceive!

1. Why is the Brain a "Miser"?

• The brain is often described as a "miser" because it strives to conserve cognitive resources and minimize mental energy expenditure. This principle, known as **cognitive miserliness**, refers to how the brain prefers using shortcuts and simplified processes to make decisions and respond to the world efficiently. It avoids complex, energy-consuming tasks whenever possible. This approach affects consumer behavior as shoppers tend to make decisions based on intuition and ease rather than through extensive deliberation.

Three Strategies of Cognitive Miserliness

• Efficiency

  Our brain uses heuristics, or mental shortcuts, to simplify decision-making processes. This includes reliance on quick judgments and familiar patterns

Traditional School Policies and Their Drawbacks:

• Zero-tolerance discipline policy: Doesn’t give adolescents the opportunity to learn from their mistakes and make better choices next time.
• Emotionally flat classroom climate: Ignores or suppresses the youthful exuberance of the limbic system, thus inhibiting potential positive linkages between the emotional brain and the prefrontal cortex.
• Ban on social media apps in the classroom: Limits a potentially useful medium through which peers can learn from one another.
• More homework, tougher requirements, and a longer school day: Creates stress that can impair mental and physical health at a time when the adolescent is particularly vulnerable to the negative impact of stress.
• Early start time for the

Judgment of Emotions Through Facial Expressions

Experiment Details

Name of the Experimenter:

[Experimenter's Name]

Name of the Subject:

[Subject's Name]

Educational Qualification of the Subject:

[Subject's Educational Qualification]

Age of the Subject:

[Subject's Age]

Gender of the Subject:

[Subject's Gender]

Mental Status of the Subject:

[Subject's Mental Status]

Date of the Conduction of the Practical:

[Date of Experiment]

Problem

To measure the accuracy of judgment of emotions through facial expressions.

Introduction

Emotion is a subjective response, usually accompanied by physiological changes that are interpreted by the individual. This interpretation prepares the individual for action and is associated with behavioral changes. We often observe organisms... Continue reading "Judging Emotions Through Facial Expressions: A Psychology Experiment" »

Themes in The Outsiders

Class Conflict: The rivalry between the Greasers and Socs emphasizes the socioeconomic divide and its impact on identity and relationships.

Identity and Belonging: Characters grapple with their place in society and within their groups, highlighting the search for self amidst stereotypes.

Violence and Its Consequences: The physical and emotional toll of gang rivalry demonstrates the destructiveness of unchecked aggression.

Loyalty and Brotherhood: The Greasers' strong bonds showcase the importance of chosen family in adversity.

Loss of Innocence: Ponyboy and Johnny, especially, confront moral dilemmas and death, leading to a poignant coming-of-age journey.

Conflicts in The Outsiders

• Man vs. Society: Both groups face judgment

Chapter 1: Research and Innovation in Education

1.1 What is Research?

Research is a systematic process of solving questions and seeking knowledge that has its own rules, that is, a method.

The Goal in Education

It is directed to the search for new knowledge that is useful for the explanation and/or understanding of educational phenomena that affect processes and results.

Valid + Reliable = Knowledge

What is the Difference Between Validity and Reliability?

Reliability of a Source

For knowledge to be scientific, it must be true for everyone, and this is achieved with reliable sources. The lack of reliability generates inaccurate results and affects the content, making it impossible to know if the information obtained is really what we were looking for.... Continue reading "Educational Research and Innovation: Methods and Practices" »

Major Depressive Disorder

Absence of happiness is a more reliable symptom than increases of sadness (response to happy vs. sad faces; aleatory screening of mood during the day). Depression is more frequent in women than in men (around 2:1 ratio). Symptoms: Absence of happiness, Sadness, Helplessness, Lack of energy, Feel worthless, Sleep problems. Nongenetic Biological Influences on Depression (Dp)

• Few cases of Dp are linked to viral infections e.g., Borna disease (farm animals)
• Postpartum Depression: 20% of women after birth. Majority of women recover fast.
• Hormone level changes (e.g., decrease in estrogen or progesterone) can induce depression in women with vulnerability.

Abnormalities of Hemispheric Dominance

Happy mood: increase activity in L... Continue reading "Understanding Major Depressive Disorder, Bipolar Disorders, and Schizophrenia" »

Critical Thinking

Curiosity, Skepticism, Humility

Psychology is a science that studies the human mind and behavior. It is a field that is constantly evolving, as new research is constantly being conducted to better understand how we think, feel, and act.

Major Schools of Psychology

Psychoanalytic (Unconscious) - Freud

Humanistic (Free Will)

Behaviorism (Watson/B.F. Skinner) - Exploration of Behaviors

There are many different schools of psychology, each with its own unique perspective on the human mind and behavior. Some of the major schools of psychology include:

• Psychoanalytic psychology, which focuses on the unconscious mind and its influence on behavior.
• Humanistic psychology, which emphasizes the importance of free will and personal growth.
• Behaviorism,

Half-Standardized Procedures

• Critical Incident Technique: With different methods, critical incidents are deduced, where the employee's reaction is decisional for success.
• Job Diary: The position holder is asked to report their work activities over a certain period. Instructions can be given in a more or less standardized way.
• Semi-Structured Interview: An interview guideline specifies the frame of course and content of the conversation. The interviewee is given room to use their own words to describe issues.
• Systematic Observation: The working person's behavior and/or the working conditions are assessed. A more precise observation plan specifies what to observe and how to record.

Standardized Procedures

• Questionnaires: Highly standardized. The interviewees